| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Opera.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ |
| 2 | | -'''Opera''' (or '''Melodramma''') is an [[art]] form that consists of a stage performance of a [[drama]] (whose text is called the "[[libretto]]"). |
| | 2 | +'''Opera''' (or '''Melodramma''') is an [[art]] form that consists of a stage performance of a [[drama]] (whose text is called the "[[libretto]]"). |
| 3 | 3 | |
| 4 | 4 | The drama is presented utilizing [[scenery]], [[costume]]s, [[acting]]. Much of the [[dialogue]] is presented through [[singing]]: [[Recitative]] is singing in much the form of speaking, [[aria]] is an extended solo passage. Arioso is a smaller, more limited in subject matter aria. |
| 5 | 5 | |
| — | — | @@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ |
| 10 | 10 | ---- |
| 11 | 11 | |
| 12 | 12 | ==== History ==== |
| 13 | | -Opera began in [[Italy]] in the [[Renaissance]], as an attempt to revive Classical Greek drama. Opera means simply "work" in [[Italian]]. The first opera was written around [[1597]] in Northern Italy, sources differ on the exact date and place. |
| | 13 | +Opera began in [[Italy]] in the [[Renaissance]], as an attempt to revive Classical Greek drama. Opera means simply "work" in [[Italian]]. The first opera was written around [[1597]] in Northern Italy, sources differ on the exact date and place. |
| 14 | 14 | |
| 15 | 15 | For centuries, Italian opera was the standard form, and many operas written by English- or German-speaking composers, [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], for example, are in [[Italian]]. A separate French tradition, sung in [[French]], was founded by [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]], and well into the middle of the nineteenth century, operas performed in [[France]] were usually written or translated into French. [[Spain]] produced its own distinctive form: [[zarzuela]]. |
| 16 | 16 | |
| — | — | @@ -37,10 +37,8 @@ |
| 38 | 38 | *[[Sydney Opera House]] |
| 39 | 39 | |
| 40 | 40 | ---- |
| 41 | | -See also [[operetta]], [[musical]], [[singspiel]],[[zarzuela]] |
| | 41 | +See also [[operetta]], [[musical]], [[singspiel]], [[zarzuela]]. |
| 42 | 42 | ---- |
| 43 | | -:''What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics about opera, please see [[opera basic topics]].'' |
| 44 | 43 | |
| 45 | 44 | ''Opera'' is also the name of a popular alternative [[web browser]]; see '''[[Opera browser]]''' |
| 46 | 45 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Chemistry.txt |
| — | — | @@ -24,5 +24,5 @@ |
| 25 | 25 | |
| 26 | 26 | [http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/iupac/ IUPAC Nomenclature Home Page] |
| 27 | 27 | |
| 28 | | -:''See also:'' [[Chemistry basic topics]], [[Chemist]] |
| | 28 | +See also [[Chemistry basic topics]], [[Chemist]]. |
| 29 | 29 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Religion.txt |
| — | — | @@ -16,8 +16,8 @@ |
| 17 | 17 | |
| 18 | 18 | The following three types of religion are helpful, but should not be read as completely distinct as they do share in each other's characteristics. |
| 19 | 19 | *[[Theism|Theistic]] religions are primarily focused on a Deity(-ies) and begin when Deity intervenes in the lives of a person or group, enlightening them and establishing a superior way of life leading to internal peace in this life, and qualification for some kind of [[Heaven]] after this life. Examples of monotheisms (one Deity religions): [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. |
| 20 | | -*Some faiths, perhaps "Spiritual Philosophies" begin with practical teachings on achieving human happiness or equanimity in the context of both earthly and other dimensions. Examples: [[Buddhism]],[[Taoism]], and [[Confucianism]]. |
| 21 | | -*A third type, perhaps "Traditional Religions" which seems to involve the oldest religions, evolves slowly over long millennia, and is centered more on [[symbol]], [[icon]], sacred story and customs. These sorts of sources can be interpreted very differently at different times and places: an image can even mean contradictory things to different interpreters. [[Hinduism]] is one example of this type, although most Hinduisms are theistic. Further examples are the many kinds of [[Shamanism]] and [[Ancestor religion]]s. |
| | 20 | +*Some faiths, perhaps "Spiritual Philosophies" begin with practical teachings on achieving human happiness or equanimity in the context of both earthly and other dimensions. Examples: [[Buddhism]],[[Taoism]], and [[Confucianism]]. |
| | 21 | +*A third type, perhaps "Traditional Religions" which seems to involve the oldest religions, evolves slowly over long millennia, and is centered more on [[symbol]], [[icon]], sacred story and customs. These sorts of sources can be interpreted very differently at different times and places: an image can even mean contradictory things to different interpreters. [[Hinduism]] is one example of this type, although most Hinduisms are theistic. Further examples are the many kinds of [[Shamanism]] and [[Ancestor religion]]s. |
| 22 | 22 | |
| 23 | 23 | Religions deal with the (more or less) divergent [[lifestyle|lifestyles]] espoused by other religions in several ways. Religions with a duty to convert, or with more closed sets of beliefs typically label all others wrong, corruptions or counterfeits of the true faith. More open religions praise all belief systems as beneficial, and among open religions it is often possible to practice more than one faith together with integrity, as occurs commonly in [[Asia]] and [[Africa]]. |
| 24 | 24 | |
| — | — | @@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ |
| 43 | 43 | |
| 44 | 44 | === Monotheism vs. Polytheism === |
| 45 | 45 | |
| 46 | | -The dominance of [[monotheism]] among influential Western scholars of religion, and theologians, proposed a division into monotheistic and [[polytheism|polytheistic]] faiths. The classification fails with a religion that has no concept of "god" (like [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]]). Many people both inside and outside of [[Christianity]] find its claim to be monotheistic problematic since it has more than one god form, (God as Father, Son and [[Holy Spirit]]), explained in the doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. This has resulted in much ingenious Christian theology. The monotheism of [[Islam]] and [[Judaism]] is much more clearcut, although very early sources for both [[Allah]] and [[Yahweh]] show signs of polytheistic origins or forerunners, which does not at all deny or contradict their sole Deity status once the religion became established. [[Neopaganism]], a religion generally considered to be polytheistic, is also difficult to classify neatly. While adherents worship a diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses, a great many of them believe those personalities to be facets of a single Divine entity. |
| | 46 | +The dominance of [[monotheism]] among influential Western scholars of religion, and theologians, proposed a division into monotheistic and [[polytheism|polytheistic]] faiths. The classification fails with a religion that has no concept of "god" (like [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]]). Many people both inside and outside of [[Christianity]] find its claim to be monotheistic problematic since it has more than one god form, (God as Father, Son and [[Holy Spirit]]), explained in the doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. This has resulted in much ingenious Christian theology. The monotheism of [[Islam]] and [[Judaism]] is much more clearcut, although very early sources for both [[Allah]] and [[Yahweh]] show signs of polytheistic origins or forerunners, which does not at all deny or contradict their sole Deity status once the religion became established. [[Neopaganism]], a religion generally considered to be polytheistic, is also difficult to classify neatly. While adherents worship a diverse pantheon of gods and goddesses, a great many of them believe those personalities to be facets of a single Divine entity. |
| 47 | 47 | |
| 48 | 48 | Some religions have secondary deities, which is straightforward in eg Hinduism, but less so for those Christians who venerate [[The Virgin Mary|Mary]] as Theotokos (Mother of God). Mary has often attracted such a massive devotion by the faithful that the Church has been careful to clearly define her status: Christians in the Catholic and Orthodox traditions are instructed that she is to be venerated but not worshipped, and that [[Jesus Christ]] is eternally begotten of the Father, and the Creator of his strictly human mother. (see also: [[Third Ecumenical Council]], [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]].) Many [[mysticism|mystics]] have asserted the female aspect of Deity but apart from Hinduism this has not been regarded as mainstream by major world religions for several centuries. Goddess is routinely recognised in Hindu Mahadevi, Mahayana Buddhism, Western Paganism and Goddess Spirituality. |
| 49 | 49 | |
| — | — | @@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ |
| 58 | 58 | See also: [[Goddess]] - [[God]] - [[interfaith organizations]] [[names given to the divine]] - [[Religion index]] - [[Philosophy of religion]] - [[Sociology of Religion]] - [[Theology]] - [[Feminist theology]] - [[Thealogy]] - [[History of religions]] - [[Definition of religion]] - [[Charismatics]] - [[Religious pluralism]] - [[Tolerance]] - [[freedom of religion]] - [[Afterlife]], [[Angel]], [[Demon]], [[Demonolatry]] - [[History of religions]] - [[Henks Comparative Sacred Reading]] - [[Mystery religion]] |
| 59 | 59 | |
| 60 | 60 | See also this listing of various religions: [[religions of the world]] |
| | 61 | + |
| 61 | 62 | === External Links === |
| 62 | 63 | |
| 63 | 64 | * [http://www.adherents.com/ Statistics on Religions] |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Game.txt |
| — | — | @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ |
| | 2 | +[[eo:Ludoj]][[fr:Jeux]] |
| | 3 | +All through human history, people have played '''games'''. They've done so mostly to entertain themselves and others. But games are also a form of self-expression, and a means of training young people, and reminding adults, of the preferred values of the society in which they live. |
| | 4 | + |
| | 5 | +Games can involve one person acting alone, but more often involve competition among two or more persons with differing goals. Philosopher [[David Kelley]], in his popular introductory reasoning text [[The Art of Reasoning]], defines the concept "game" as "a form of recreation constituted by a set of rules that specify an object to be attained and the permissible means of attaining it." |
| | 6 | + |
| | 7 | +This covers most cases well, but does not quite fit with things like war games and sports that are often done not for entertainment but to build skills for later use. In [[Philosophical Investigations]], philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept "game" could not be defined. [[Stephen Linhart]] said, "People say you have to choose between games and real life. I think this claim that there's a dichotomy is very dangerous." |
| | 8 | + |
| | 9 | +Many technical fields are often applied to the study of games, including [[probability]], [[statistics]], [[economics]], and [[game theory]]. |
| | 10 | + |
| | 11 | +== Types of Games == |
| | 12 | + |
| | 13 | +*[[Board game|Board games]] |
| | 14 | +*[[Card game|Card games]] |
| | 15 | +*[[Casino game|Casino games]] |
| | 16 | +*[[Video game|Computer and Video games]] |
| | 17 | +*[[Mathematical game|Mathematical games]] |
| | 18 | +*[[Letter game|Letter games]] |
| | 19 | +*[[Role-playing game|Role-playing games]] |
| | 20 | +*[[Tile-based game|Tile-based games]] |
| | 21 | +*[[Sport|Sports]] |
| | 22 | +*[[Guessing game|Guessing games]] |
| | 23 | +*[[Pencil and paper game|Pencil and paper games]] |
| | 24 | +*[[Counting-out game|Counting-out games]] |
| | 25 | +*[[Drinking game|Drinking games]] |
| | 26 | +*[[Play by mail game|Play by mail games]] |
| | 27 | +*[[Game show|Game shows]] |
| | 28 | +*[[Unclassified game|Unclassified games]] |
| | 29 | +*[[Table-top game]]s |
| | 30 | +*[[Spoken game]]s |
| | 31 | +*[[Games of physical skill]] |
| | 32 | + |
| | 33 | +See also: [[Sport]]. |
| | 34 | + |
| Property changes on: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Game.txt |
| ___________________________________________________________________ |
| Added: svn:eol-style |
| 1 | 35 | + native |
| Added: svn:keywords |
| 2 | 36 | + Author Date Id Revision |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Public_affairs.txt |
| — | — | @@ -7,6 +7,3 @@ |
| 8 | 8 | It focuses on providing news and information without a conscious point of view. |
| 9 | 9 | |
| 10 | 10 | [[Social activism]] involves popular action and commentary on public affairs, as well as [[civil defense]], and [[community emergency response team]]s. |
| 11 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Public Affairs, please see [[Public Affairs basic topics]]. |
| 12 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Entertainment.txt |
| — | — | @@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ |
| 20 | 20 | **[[Illusion]] |
| 21 | 21 | *[[Magic]] |
| 22 | 22 | |
| 23 | | -See also [[Game]]. |
| | 23 | +See also [[Game]]s. |
| 24 | 24 | |
| 25 | 25 | You might also find this page to be morbidly fascinating: |
| 26 | 26 | |
| — | — | @@ -28,6 +28,3 @@ |
| 29 | 29 | And for the intellectually challenged: |
| 30 | 30 | |
| 31 | 31 | [[Cow tipping]] (although the cows probably don't see the funny side) |
| 32 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in entertainment, please see [[entertainment basic topics]]. |
| 33 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Economics.txt |
| — | — | @@ -31,21 +31,22 @@ |
| 32 | 32 | === Branches of economics and related subjects === |
| 33 | 33 | Economics may be broken down as follows: |
| 34 | 34 | |
| 35 | | -:''[[Microeconomics]]''<br> |
| | 35 | +:''[[Microeconomics]]'' |
| | 36 | + |
| 36 | 37 | :[[General equilibrium]] -- [[Industrial organization]] -- [[Financial economics]] -- [[Public finance]] -- [[International trade]] -- [[Labor market|Labor economics]] -- [[Development economics]] -- [[Environmental economics]] -- [[Evolutionary economics]] -- [[Public choice theory]] -- [[Economic geography]] -- [[Network effect]] -- [[Transport economics]] |
| 37 | 38 | |
| 38 | | -:''[[Macroeconomics]]''<br> |
| | 39 | +:''[[Macroeconomics]]'' |
| 39 | 40 | :[[Stabilisation policy]] -- [[Economic growth]] -- [[Purchasing power parity]] |
| 40 | 41 | |
| 41 | | -:''Methodology''<br> |
| | 42 | +:''Methodology'' |
| 42 | 43 | :[[Econometrics]] -- [[Game Theory]] -- [[Mathematical economics]] |
| 43 | 44 | |
| 44 | 45 | Related fields and topics: |
| 45 | 46 | |
| 46 | | -:''Related fields''<br> |
| | 47 | +:''Related fields'' |
| 47 | 48 | :[[History of Economic Thought|History of economic thought]] -- [[Political economy]] -- [[Political science]] -- [[Accounting]] -- [[Finance and investment]] -- [[Operations research]] |
| 48 | 49 | |
| 49 | | -:''Selected topics''<br> |
| | 50 | +:''Selected topics'' |
| 50 | 51 | :[[Economists]] -- [[Nobel Prize in Economics]] -- [[Communism]] -- [[Capitalism]] -- [[Market economy]] -- [[Informal economy]] -- [[Natural capitalism]] -- [[Stock exchange]] |
| 51 | 52 | |
| 52 | 53 | === Economics and political economy === |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Poker.txt |
| — | — | @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ |
| | 2 | +:''Poker is a microcosm of all we admire and disdain about capitalism and democracy. It can be rough-hewn or polished, warm or cold, charitable and caring or hard and impersonal. It is fickle and elusive, but ultimately it is fair, and right, and just.'' -- Lou Krieger |
| | 3 | + |
| | 4 | +The [[card game]] '''poker''' is the most popular of a class of games called '''vying''' games, in which players with fully or partially concealed cards make wagers into a central '''pot''', after which the pot is awarded to the remaining player or players with the best combination of cards. |
| | 5 | + |
| | 6 | +In order to play, one must learn the basic rules and procedures of the game (see [[Poker/Game play|Game play]]), the values of the various combinations of cards (see [[Poker/Hands|Hands]]), and the rules about betting limits (see [[Poker/Betting structure|Betting structure]]). Some knowledge of the [[Poker/Equipment|Equipment]] used to play is useful. There are also many [[Poker/Variants|Variants]] of poker, loosely categorized as [[Draw poker]], [[Stud poker]], [[Community card poker]], and [[Miscellaneous poker]] games. The most commonly played games of the first three categories are [[Five-card draw]], [[Seven-card stud]], and [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]]; each of these makes a good starting point for learning games of the type. |
| | 7 | + |
| | 8 | +The history of poker is a matter of some debate. The name of the game likely descended from the [[French]] '''poque''', which descended from the [[German]] '''pochen''', but it is not clear that the games named by those terms were the real origins of poker. It closely resembles the [[Persian]] game of '''as nas''', and may have been taught to French settlers in [[New Orleans]] by Persian sailors. Some claim it descended from the [[Italian]] game of '''primero''' and the French '''brelan'''. The [[English]] game '''bragg''' clearly descended from '''brelan''' and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time). It is quite possible that all of these earlier games influenced the development of poker as it exists now. |
| | 9 | + |
| | 10 | +English actor Joseph Crowell described the game as played in New Orleans in 1829: played with a deck of 20 cards, four players bet on which player's hand of cards was the most valuable. Jonathan H. Green's book ''An Exposure of the Arts and Miseries of Gambling'' (G. B. Zieber, Philadelphia, 1843) described spread of the game from there to the rest of the country by [[Mississippi river|Mississippi]] riverboats, on which gambling was a common pastime. |
| | 11 | + |
| | 12 | +Soon after this spread, the full 52-card English deck was used, and the [[Poker/Flush|Flush]] was introduced. During the [[American Civil War]], many additions were made, including [[draw poker]], [[stud poker]] (the five-card variant), and the [[Poker/Straight|Straight]]. Further American developments followed, such as the [[Poker/Wild card|Wild card]] (around 1875), [[lowball]] and split-pot poker (around 1900), and [[Community card poker]] games (around 1940). Spread of the game to other countries, particularly in Asia, is often attributed to the American military. |
| | 13 | + |
| | 14 | +The game and [[Poker Jargon|jargon]] of poker have become important parts of American culture. Such phrases as ''ace in the hole'', ''ante up'', ''beats me'', ''blue chip'', ''call the bluff'', ''cash in'', ''pass the buck'', ''poker face'', ''stack up'', ''when the chips are down'', ''wild card'', and others are used in everyday conversation even by those unaware of their origins at the poker table. |
| | 15 | + |
| | 16 | +Modern [[Poker/Tournament|Tournament]] play became popular in American casinos after the [[World Series of Poker]] began in 1970. It was also during that decade that the first serious strategy books appeared, notably ''The Theory of Poker'' by David Sklansky (ISBN 1880685000), ''Super System'' by Doyle Brunson (ISBN 0931444014), and ''The Book of Tells'' by Mike Caro (ISBN 0897461002). |
| | 17 | + |
| | 18 | +<h2>Overview</h2> |
| | 19 | + |
| | 20 | +* Rules of the game |
| | 21 | +** [[Poker/Game play|Game play]], with sample deals. |
| | 22 | +** [[Poker/Hands|Hands]] (including [[Poker/Low hand|Low hand]]s and [[Poker/High hand|High hand]]s) |
| | 23 | +** [[Poker/Betting structure|Betting structure]] |
| | 24 | +** [[Poker/Variants|Variants]] |
| | 25 | +*** [[Draw poker]] (including [[Five-card draw]] and [[Deuce-to-seven low]]) |
| | 26 | +*** [[Stud poker]] (including [[Five-card stud]] and [[Seven-card stud]]) |
| | 27 | +*** [[Community card poker]] (including [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]]) |
| | 28 | +*** [[Miscellaneous poker]] |
| | 29 | +* [[Poker strategy]] |
| | 30 | +** [[Poker/Probability|Probability]] |
| | 31 | +** [[Poker/Bluffing|Bluffing]] and semi-bluffing |
| | 32 | +** [[Poker/Sandbagging|Sandbagging]] and slow play |
| | 33 | +** [[Poker/Game theory|Game theory]] |
| | 34 | +** [[Poker/Psychology|Psychology]] (including [[Poker/Tell|Tell]]s) |
| | 35 | +* [[Poker/Cheating|Cheating]] |
| | 36 | +** [[Poker/Mechanics|Mechanics]] |
| | 37 | +** [[Poker/Collusion|Collusion]] |
| | 38 | +* Casino play |
| | 39 | +** [[Poker/Public cardroom rules|Public cardroom rules]] |
| | 40 | +** [[Poker/Public cardroom etiquette|Public cardroom etiquette]] |
| | 41 | +* [[Poker/Tournament|Tournament]]s |
| | 42 | +** [[Poker tournament strategy]] |
| | 43 | +** [[World Series of Poker]] |
| | 44 | +* [[Poker jargon]] |
| | 45 | +* [[Poker/Law|Law]] and [[Poker/Culture|Culture]] |
| | 46 | +* Famous players: [[Bobby Baldwin]], [[Billy Baxter]], [[Benny Binion]], [[Doyle Brunson]], [[Mike Caro]], [[Johnny Chan]], [[Bob Ciaffone]], [[T. J. Cloutier]], [[Nick Dandalos|Nick "The Greek" Dandolos]], [[Phil Hellmuth]], [[Bill Hickock|"Wild Bill" Hickock]], [[Lou Krieger]], [[Mason Malmuth]], [[Tom McEvoy]], [[Johnny Moss]], [[Puggy Pearson]], [[Amarillo Slim|"Amarillo Slim" Preston]], [[David Sklansky]], [[Jack Strauss]], [[Stu Ungar]] |
| | 47 | + |
| | 48 | +---- |
| | 49 | +:''See also :'' [[Poker/Dead money|Dead money]] -- [[Poker/Freeroll|Freeroll]] -- [[Poker/Jargon|Poker jargon]] -- [[Poker/Rule variation|rule variations]] -- [[Poker/Miscellaneous game]] |
| | 50 | +---- |
| | 51 | + |
| | 52 | +[[Poker-related game]]s include non-poker vying games commonly played along with poker such as [[Seven twenty-seven]], [[Zero fifty-five]], [[Boure|Bour�]], and [[Caro Dots]], and unrelated games that use poker hands in various ways such as [[Dollar bill poker]], [[Pai Gow poker]], [[Caribbean stud]], [[Mambo stud]], and [[Chinese poker]]. |
| Property changes on: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Poker.txt |
| ___________________________________________________________________ |
| Added: svn:eol-style |
| 1 | 53 | + native |
| Added: svn:keywords |
| 2 | 54 | + Author Date Id Revision |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Music.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[de:Musik]][[eo:Muziko]][[fr:Musique]][[nl:Muziek]][[pl:Muzyka]][[pt:M�sica]] |
| 3 | 3 | Broadly speaking, '''music''' is any artful or entertaining arrangement of [[sound|sounds]], deliberate or otherwise. The actual [[definition of music]] is hotly contested. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | | -We can define "music" more formally as a series of organized sounds and silences temporal in nature, which those who know it can reproduce. |
| | 5 | +We can define "music" more formally as a series of organized sounds and silences temporal in nature, which those who know it can reproduce. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | 7 | All music also has some varying degree of [[rhythm]] and [[melody]]. [[Harmony]] is often added. |
| 8 | 8 | The following are [[Music basic topics|music-related topics]]: |
| — | — | @@ -17,8 +17,3 @@ |
| 18 | 18 | |
| 19 | 19 | The academic study of music is called [[Musicology]]. |
| 20 | 20 | |
| 21 | | - |
| 22 | | - |
| 23 | | - |
| 24 | | - |
| 25 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Law.txt |
| — | — | @@ -7,25 +7,25 @@ |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | 9 | The several different levels of [[government]] each produce their own laws (though the extent to which law is centralized varies); thus at any one place there can be laws in force established at the local, regional, state, national or international levels. |
| 10 | 10 | |
| 11 | | -<b>Legal systems</b> |
| | 11 | +== Legal systems == |
| 12 | 12 | |
| 13 | 13 | [[Common law]] -- [[civil law]] -- [[Roman law]] -- [[international law]] -- [[European community law]] -- [[socialist law]] -- [[Canon law]] |
| 14 | 14 | |
| 15 | | -<b>Legal subject areas</b> |
| | 15 | +== Legal subject areas == |
| 16 | 16 | |
| 17 | 17 | [[Constitutional law]] -- [[Criminal law]] -- [[Civil law]] -- [[Administrative law]] -- [[Evidence|Law of Evidence]] _ [[Procedural law]] -- [[Private law]] -- [[Family law]] -- [[Labor law]] -- [[Corporations law]] -- [[Property law]] -- [[Human rights law]] -- [[Intellectual Property law]] -- [[Environmental law]] -- [[Land use]] -- [[consuetudinary law]] |
| 18 | 18 | |
| 19 | | -<b>Law of particular countries</b> |
| | 19 | +== Law of particular countries == |
| 20 | 20 | |
| 21 | 21 | *[[United Kingdom]]: [[British Nationality Law]], [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], [[House of Lords]], [[Human Rights Act 1998]] |
| 22 | 22 | *[[United States]]: [[US Constitutional Law]], [[United States Constitution]], [[False Claims Law]], [[Controlled Substances Act]], [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]], [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] |
| 23 | 23 | *[[Australia]]: [[Australian Constitutional History]] |
| 24 | 24 | |
| 25 | | -<b>Subjects Auxillary to Law</b> |
| | 25 | +== Subjects Auxillary to Law == |
| 26 | 26 | |
| 27 | 27 | [[Jurisprudence]] -- [[Practice of law]] -- [[philosophy of law]] -- [[comparative law]] -- [[legal history]] -- [[law and literature]] -- [[dispute resolution]] (aka, [[alternative dispute resolution]]) |
| 28 | 28 | |
| 29 | | -<b>Other</b> |
| | 29 | +== Other == |
| 30 | 30 | (To be arranged into the above categories) |
| 31 | 31 | |
| 32 | 32 | * [[abandonment]] |
| — | — | @@ -169,12 +169,9 @@ |
| 170 | 170 | * [[Black's Law Dictionary]] |
| 171 | 171 | * [[Halsbury's Statutes]] |
| 172 | 172 | |
| 173 | | -''see also [[Crime]]'' |
| | 173 | +See also [[Crime]]. |
| 174 | 174 | *[http://www.HavenWorks.com/law Law & Legal News & Reference:] http://www.HavenWorks.com/law |
| 175 | 175 | ---- |
| 176 | 176 | |
| 177 | 177 | Not quite law: [[Law of nature]] -- [[Murphy's law]] -- [[Finagle's law]] -- [[Hanlon's Razor]] -- [[Sturgeon's law]] -- [[Parkinson's law]] -- [[Occam's razor]] |
| 178 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Law, please see [[Law basic topics]]. |
| 179 | 178 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Anthropology.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,72 +1,36 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[eo:Antropologio]][[nl:Antropologie]][[pl:Antropologia]][[fr:Anthropologie]] |
| 3 | 3 | |
| 4 | | -'''Anthropology''' is the study of humankind (see genus [[Hominoid|Homo]]). It is holistic in two senses: it is concerned with all humans, and with all dimensions of humanity. Central to modern anthropology is the notion that human nature is "culture;" in other words, that our species has evolved a universal capacity to conceive of the world symbolically, to teach and learn such symbols socially, and to transform the world (and ourselves) based on such symbols. It is traditionally divided into four fields: [[physical anthropology]], which studies primate behavior, human evolution, and population genetics; [[linguistics]], which studies variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture; [[archaeology]], which studies the material remains of human societies; and [[cultural anthropology]], also called socio-cultural anthropology, which studies social behavior and beliefs (among phenomena studied by cultural anthropologists are kinship patterns, social networks, family interactions, language development and exchange, cultural migration, and yes, [[cannibalism]] (which we mention only because we have an article on the subject; please help complete this list)...) |
| | 4 | +'''Anthropology''' is the study of humankind (see genus [[Hominoid|Homo]]). It is holistic in two senses: it is concerned with all humans, and with all dimensions of humanity. Central to modern anthropology is the notion that human nature is "culture"; in other words, that our species has evolved a universal capacity to conceive of the world symbolically, to teach and learn such symbols socially, and to transform the world (and ourselves) based on such symbols. It is traditionally divided into four fields: [[physical anthropology]], which studies primate behavior, human evolution, and population genetics; [[linguistics]], which studies variation in language across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture; [[archaeology]], which studies the material remains of human societies; and [[cultural anthropology]], also called socio-cultural anthropology, which studies social behavior and beliefs (among phenomena studied by cultural anthropologists are kinship patterns, social networks, family interactions, language development and exchange, cultural migration, and yes, [[cannibalism]] (which we mention only because we have an article on the subject; please help complete this list)...) |
| 5 | 5 | |
| 6 | | - |
| 7 | | - |
| 8 | | - |
| 9 | | - |
| 10 | 6 | == Anthropology in the Broader Context == |
| 11 | 7 | |
| 12 | 8 | One anthropologist characterized anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the social sciences. In order to see how anthropology does and does not fit into other academic disciplines, one must see how these disciplines developed. |
| 13 | 9 | |
| 14 | | - |
| 15 | | - |
| 16 | 10 | Anthropology is one Western response to one of the greatest paradoxes of modernity: as the world is becoming smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world is increasingly atomized and dispersed. As one social theorist has observed, |
| 17 | 11 | |
| 18 | | - |
| 19 | | - |
| 20 | 12 | :All old-established national industries have been destroyed or are daily being destroyed. They are dislodged by new industries, whose introduction becomes a life and death question for all civilized nations, by industries that no longer work up indigenous raw material but raw material drawn from the remotest zones; industries whose products are consumed, not only at home, but in every quarter of the globe. In place of the old wants, satisfied by the production of the country, we find new wants, requiring for their satisfaction the products of distant lands and climes. In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations. |
| 21 | 13 | |
| | 14 | +Ironically, this universal interdependence, rather than leading to greater human solidarity, has coincided with increasing racial, ethnic, religious, and class divisions, and new — and to some confusing or disturbing — forms of sexuality and notions of gender. These are the conditions of life with which people today must contend, but they have their origins in processes that began in the 16th century and accelerated in the 19th century. |
| 22 | 15 | |
| | 16 | +In the 19th century numerous scholars grappled with these issues. The "[[humanities]]" reflected an attempt to consolidate and celebrate different national traditions, in the form of history and the arts, as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation-states with a sense of coherence. The "[[social sciences]]" emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena, in an attempt to provide a universal basis for social knowledge. |
| 23 | 17 | |
| 24 | | -Ironically, this universal interdependence, rather than leading to greater human solidarity, has coincided with increasing racial, ethnic, religious, and class divisions, and new &#8211; and to some confusing or disturbing &#8211; forms of sexuality and notions of gender. These are the conditions of life with which people today must contend, but they have their origins in processes that began in the 16th century and accelerated in the 19th century. |
| | 18 | +Some scholars gave a name to the dimension of human action in which these problems are most evident, and the concept through which they could be solved: society. The new discipline of [[sociology]] would study the ties that bind people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and institutions. Through such studies sociologists could develop "the antidote to social disintegration." |
| 25 | 19 | |
| | 20 | +Nevertheless, this new discipline, in the very process of distinguishing "society" from "the individual", "the state" and "the market", and by placing itself among complementary social sciences such as [[psychology]], [[political science]], and [[economics]] represented in intellectual form the very social divisions it sought to understand and heal. Moreover, the most obvious sites for the study of modernity, and the most convenient sites for the application of new scientific, quantitative research methods, was in the sociologists' own societies, at the core of the emerging world system. Consequently, they neglected the study of those societies on or beyond modernity's frontiers. |
| 26 | 21 | |
| | 22 | +At the same time that social scientists were defining this new object and method of study, however, a diverse group of scholars — with training in jurisprudence, psychology, geography, physics, mathematics, and other disciplines, and drawing on the methods of the natural sciences as well as developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews but unstructured "participant-observation" — dedicated themselves precisely to the study of those people on Europe's colonial frontiers. Drawing on the new theory of evolution through natural selection, they proposed the scientific study of a new object: "humankind", conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept "culture", which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they see as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes Homo sapiens — and perhaps all species of genus [[Hominoid|Homo]] — from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions that takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, "culture" not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture; it transcends and absorbs the peculiarly European distinction between politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. They consequently organized a new discipline, anthropology, that would transcend the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms. |
| 27 | 23 | |
| 28 | | -In the 19th century numerous scholars grappled with these issues. The "[[humanities]]" reflected an attempt to consolidate and celebrate different national traditions, in the form of history and the arts, as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation-states with a sense of coherence. The "[[social sciences]]" emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena, in an attempt to provide a universal basis for social knowledge. |
| | 24 | +== Anthropological concepts == |
| 29 | 25 | |
| 30 | | - |
| 31 | | - |
| 32 | | -Some scholars gave a name to the dimension of human action in which these problems are most evident, and the concept through which they could be solved: society. The new discipline of [[sociology]] would study the ties that bind people not only as individuals, but as members of associations, groups, and institutions. Through such studies sociologists could develop "the antidote to social disintegration." |
| 33 | | - |
| 34 | | - |
| 35 | | - |
| 36 | | -Nevertheless, this new discipline, in the very process of distinguishing "society" from "the individual," "the state" and "the market," and by placing itself among complementary social sciences such as [[psychology]], [[political science]], and [[economics]] represented in intellectual form the very social divisions it sought to understand and heal. Moreover, the most obvious sites for the study of modernity, and the most convenient sites for the application of new scientific, quantitative research methods, was in the sociologists' own societies, at the core of the emerging world system. Consequently, they neglected the study of those societies on or beyond modernity's frontiers. |
| 37 | | - |
| 38 | | - |
| 39 | | - |
| 40 | | -At the same time that social scientists were defining this new object and method of study, however, a diverse group of scholars &#8211; with training in jurisprudence, psychology, geography, physics, mathematics, and other disciplines, and drawing on the methods of the natural sciences as well as developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews but unstructured "participant-observation" &#8211; dedicated themselves precisely to the study of those people on Europe's colonial frontiers. Drawing on the new theory of evolution through natural selection, they proposed the scientific study of a new object: "humankind," conceived of as a whole. Crucial to this study is the concept "culture," which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they see as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes Homo sapiens -- and perhaps all species of genus [[Hominoid|Homo]] -- from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions that takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices. Thus, "culture" not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture; it transcends and absorbs the peculiarly European distinction between politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains. They consequently organized a new discipline, anthropology, that would transcend the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms. |
| 41 | | - |
| 42 | | - |
| 43 | | - |
| 44 | | - |
| 45 | | -'''Anthropological concepts'''<br> |
| 46 | | - |
| 47 | 26 | *[[Colonialism]] |
| 48 | | - |
| 49 | 27 | *[[Cultural exchange]] |
| 50 | | - |
| 51 | 28 | *[[Culture]] |
| 52 | | - |
| 53 | 29 | *[[Ethnicity]] |
| 54 | | - |
| 55 | 30 | *[[Gender]] |
| 56 | | - |
| 57 | 31 | *[[Kinship and descent]] |
| 58 | | - |
| 59 | 32 | *[[Marriage]] |
| 60 | | - |
| 61 | 33 | *[[Political system]]s |
| 62 | | - |
| 63 | 34 | *[[Race]] |
| 64 | | - |
| 65 | 35 | *[[Religion]] |
| 66 | | - |
| 67 | 36 | *[[Subsistence]] |
| 68 | 37 | |
| 69 | | - |
| 70 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Anthropology, please see [[Anthropology basic topics]]. |
| 71 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Geography.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[eo:Geografio]][[nl:Geografie]] |
| 3 | | -'''Geography''' is the study of the surface of the [[Earth]]. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words "h&ecirc; g&ecirc;" ("the Earth") and "graphein" ("to write"). |
| | 3 | +'''Geography''' is the study of the surface of the [[Earth]]. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''hêgê'' ("the Earth") and ''graphein'' ("to write"). |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | | -Geography is much more than [[Cartography]], the study of maps. It not only investigates what is where on the Earth, but also why it's there not somewhere else, sometimes referred to as "location in space". It studies this whether the cause is natural or human. It also studies the consequences of those differences. |
| | 5 | +Geography is much more than [[Cartography]], the study of maps. It not only investigates what is where on the Earth, but also why it's there not somewhere else, sometimes referred to as "location in space". It studies this whether the cause is natural or human. It also studies the consequences of those differences. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | 7 | '''Methods''' |
| 8 | 8 | |
| — | — | @@ -43,7 +43,3 @@ |
| 44 | 44 | |
| 45 | 45 | In the [[1950s]] the [[regional science]] movement arose, led by [[Walter Isard]] to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the more qualitative tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional Science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as [[regional economics]], [[resource management]], [[location theory]], [[urban planning|urban]] and [[regional planning]], [[transportation]] and [[communication]], [[human geography]], [[population distribution]] and environmental quality. |
| 46 | 46 | |
| 47 | | - |
| 48 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Geography, please see [[Geography basic topics]]. |
| 49 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/World_Series_of_Poker.txt |
| — | — | @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ |
| | 2 | +The richest and most prestigious [[poker]] tournament in the world is the '''World Series of Poker''', held annually at [[Binions Horseshoe|Binion's Horseshoe]] [[casino]] in [[Las Vegas]], Nevada. It has been held every year since 1970 (when it had seven entrants), and has grown in popularity since, the year 2000 series having 4780 entrants in various events. |
| | 3 | + |
| | 4 | +The series consists of many events of different [[poker variant]]s, each of which awards the winner a gold bracelet signifying the world championship of that event. The 2001 series had 25 events held from April 20 to May 18. The final event of the series, widely considered the world championship of the game of poker, is the $10,000 entry no-limit [[Texas holdem|Texas hold'em]] championship, a four-day event with a top prize of $1,500,000. The winner of this event also has his picture installed in the "Gallery of Champions" at Binion's. |
| | 5 | + |
| | 6 | +== History == |
| | 7 | + |
| | 8 | +Until 2001, the leading money winner in World Series history is T. J. Cloutier, who finished "in the money" in 33 events, including four gold bracelets in various events, a fifth-place, a third-place, and two second-place finishes in the main event, but who has never won the "big dance". In 2001, Phil Hellmuth's 7th bracelet and 5th place finish in the final event moved him ahead of Cloutier. |
| | 9 | + |
| | 10 | +Other historical highlights include Jack Strauss's win, which was a comback after having lost all but one chip of his stake early in the tournament, and Stu Ungar's third win 17 years after his repeat, having spent many of the intervening years out of competition and addicted to cocaine. |
| | 11 | + |
| | 12 | +Billy Baxter dominated the Deuce-to-seven draw poker event for many years, winning five bracelets and twice finishing second. He has a sixth bracelet in Ace-to-five draw. |
| | 13 | + |
| | 14 | +Players who have won bracelets in a [[draw poker]] event, a [[stud poker]] game, and a [[community card poker]] game are Mickey Appleman, Bobby Baldwin, Doyle Brunson (who has a total of eight bracelets in six different events, and a second place finish in 13-card [[Chinese poker]]), Johnny Chan, Johnny Moss, and Stu Ungar. |
| | 15 | + |
| | 16 | +See [http://www.binions.com/wsop/main.html Binion's WSOP Site] |
| | 17 | + |
| | 18 | +== Champions == |
| | 19 | + |
| | 20 | +These are the winners of the final "championship" event, which is now No-limit Texas Hold'em. |
| | 21 | + |
| | 22 | +* 2002 Robert Varkonyi ($2 million) |
| | 23 | +* 2001 Carlos Mortenson |
| | 24 | +* 2000 Chris "Jesus" Ferguson (The first time that first prize was $1.5 million) |
| | 25 | +* 1999 Noel Furlong |
| | 26 | +* 1998 Scotty Nguyen |
| | 27 | +* 1997 Stu Ungar |
| | 28 | +* 1996 Huck Seed |
| | 29 | +* 1995 Dan Harrington |
| | 30 | +* 1994 Russ Hamilton (Also won his weight in silver as a "WSOP Silver Anniversary" bonus) |
| | 31 | +* 1993 Jim Bechtel |
| | 32 | +* 1992 Hamid Dastmalchi |
| | 33 | +* 1991 Brad Daugherty (The first time that first prize was $1 million) |
| | 34 | +* 1990 Mansour Matloubi |
| | 35 | +* 1989 Phil Hellmuth, Jr. (Youngest ever winner) |
| | 36 | +* 1988 Johnny Chan |
| | 37 | +* 1987 Johnny Chan |
| | 38 | +* 1986 Berry Johnston |
| | 39 | +* 1985 Bill Smith |
| | 40 | +* 1984 Jack Kellar |
| | 41 | +* 1983 Tom <nowiki>McEvoy</nowiki> |
| | 42 | +* 1982 Jack "Treetop" Strauss |
| | 43 | +* 1981 Stu Ungar |
| | 44 | +* 1980 Stu Ungar |
| | 45 | +* 1979 Hal Fowler |
| | 46 | +* 1978 Bobby Baldwin |
| | 47 | +* 1977 Doyle Brunson |
| | 48 | +* 1976 Doyle Brunson |
| | 49 | +* 1975 Sailor Roberts |
| | 50 | +* 1974 Johnny Moss |
| | 51 | +* 1973 Puggy Pearson |
| | 52 | +* 1972 "Amarillo Slim" Preston |
| | 53 | +* 1971 Johnny Moss (Won in competition, as are all subsequent) |
| | 54 | +* 1970 Johnny Moss (Awarded by peer vote) |
| Property changes on: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/World_Series_of_Poker.txt |
| ___________________________________________________________________ |
| Added: svn:eol-style |
| 1 | 55 | + native |
| Added: svn:keywords |
| 2 | 56 | + Author Date Id Revision |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Film.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,9 +1,8 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[de:Film]][[eo:Kino]][[fr:Cin�ma]][[nl:Film]][[pl:Film]] |
| 3 | | -Initially, '''moving pictures''' meant only the movement that is perceived when a string of celluloid-recorded images are projected at a rate of 16 frames per second or more (see [[persistence of vision]]). Today, '''motion pictures''' (or "'''movies'''") are an art form, as well as one of the most popular forms of entertainment. |
| | 3 | +Initially, '''moving pictures''' meant only the movement that is perceived when a string of celluloid-recorded images are projected at a rate of 16 frames per second or more (see [[persistence of vision]]). Today, '''motion pictures''' (or '''movies''') are an art form, as well as one of the most popular forms of entertainment. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | 5 | === History of Cinema === |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | | -''topics to be covered'' |
| 8 | 7 | * [[Eadweard Muybridge]] |
| 9 | 8 | * [[William Friese-Greene]] |
| 10 | 9 | * [[Augustin Le Prince|Louis Aim� Augustin Le Prince]] |
| — | — | @@ -39,6 +38,3 @@ |
| 40 | 39 | :[[Screenwriter]] |
| 41 | 40 | :[[Movie studio]] |
| 42 | 41 | |
| 43 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Film, please see [[Movies basic topics]]. |
| 44 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Astronomy_and_astrophysics.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[de:Astronomie]][[eo:Astronomio kaj Astrofiziko]][[fr:Astronomie]][[nl:Astronomie en Astrofysica]][[pl:Astronomia]][[pt:Astronomia e Astrof�sica]] |
| 3 | 3 | '''Astronomy''', which etymologically means ''laws of the [[star|stars]]'', is the science whose subject is the observation and explanation of events outside the earth. '''Astrophysics''' |
| 4 | 4 | was born as the application of physics to the phenomena observed |
| 5 | | -by astronomy, this was only possible once it was understood that the elements that made up the "celestial objects" were the same that made up the [[Earth]], and that the same [[laws of physics]] applied. Nearly all astronomers now have a strong background in physics, and the results of observations are always put in an astrophysical context, so the distinction between astronomy and astrophysics almost doesn't exist anymore. |
| | 5 | +by astronomy, this was only possible once it was understood that the elements that made up the "celestial objects" were the same that made up the [[Earth]], and that the same [[laws of physics]] applied. Nearly all astronomers now have a strong background in physics, and the results of observations are always put in an astrophysical context, so the distinction between astronomy and astrophysics almost doesn't exist anymore. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | 7 | In the early part of its history, astronomy involved only the |
| 8 | 8 | observation and predictions of the motions of the objects in the sky that could be seen with the naked eye. |
| — | — | @@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ |
| 16 | 16 | spectroscopy it was proved that they were similar to our own sun, |
| 17 | 17 | but with a range of temperatures, masses and sizes. The existence |
| 18 | 18 | of our Galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of |
| 19 | | -"external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. |
| | 19 | +"external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. |
| 20 | 20 | Cosmology, a discipline that has a large intersection with |
| 21 | 21 | astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, |
| 22 | 22 | with the model of the hot [[big bang]] heavily supported by the |
| — | — | @@ -24,11 +24,8 @@ |
| 25 | 25 | |
| 26 | 26 | For a more detailed history of astronomy, see the [[history of astronomy]]. |
| 27 | 27 | |
| | 28 | +== Division by way of obtaining information == |
| 28 | 29 | |
| 29 | | - |
| 30 | | - |
| 31 | | -'''Division by way of obtaining information''' |
| 32 | | - |
| 33 | 30 | Given its huge scope, astronomy is divided into different branches. |
| 34 | 31 | The divisions are not unique, however, and the intersections, as |
| 35 | 32 | well as astronomers who work in several areas, are the rule more |
| — | — | @@ -47,12 +44,12 @@ |
| 48 | 45 | Optical and radio astronomy can be done using ground-based observatories, because the [[atmosphere]] is transparent at those wavelengths. Infrared light is heavily absorbed by |
| 49 | 46 | [[water vapor]], so infrared observatories have to be located in high, dry places or in space. |
| 50 | 47 | |
| 51 | | -The [[atmosphere]] is opaque at the wavelengths used by [[X-ray astronomy]], [[gamma-ray astronomy]], [[UV astronomy]] and, except for a few wavelength "windows", [[Far infrared astronomy]] , and so observations |
| | 48 | +The [[atmosphere]] is opaque at the wavelengths used by [[X-ray astronomy]], [[gamma-ray astronomy]], [[UV astronomy]] and, except for a few wavelength "windows", [[Far infrared astronomy]] , and so observations |
| 52 | 49 | can be carried out only from balloons or [[space observatory|space observatories]]. |
| 53 | 50 | |
| 54 | 51 | All the previous disciplines are based on the detection of [[photon|photons]], but we also receive information from outside the earth carried by [[cosmic rays]], [[neutrino|neutrinos]], and, in the near future, [[gravitational wave|gravitational waves]] (see [[LIGO]] and [[LISA]]). |
| 55 | 52 | |
| 56 | | -'''Division by subject''' |
| | 53 | +== Division by subject == |
| 57 | 54 | |
| 58 | 55 | Astronomers study many objects including [[planet|planets]], [[star|stars]], [[nova|novae]], [[star cluster|star clusters]], [[galaxy|galaxies]], [[nebula|nebulae]], etc. but not every astronomer observes every kind of object. A different division can be made using the regions of space and problems addressed; among them |
| 59 | 56 | |
| — | — | @@ -83,17 +80,17 @@ |
| 84 | 81 | If your favorite area of research is not mentioned, feel free to |
| 85 | 82 | add it. |
| 86 | 83 | |
| 87 | | -'''Organizations''' |
| | 84 | +== Organizations == |
| 88 | 85 | |
| 89 | | -[[International Astronomical Union]]<br /> |
| 90 | | -[[American Astronomical Society]]<br /> |
| 91 | | -[[National Optical Astronomy Observatories]]<br /> |
| 92 | | -[[European Southern Observatory]]<br /> |
| 93 | | -[http://www.rasc.ca Royal Astronomical Society of Canada]<br/> |
| 94 | | -[http://www.ras.org.uk Royal Astronomical Society (UK)] |
| 95 | | -'''Amateur astronomy.''' |
| | 86 | +*[[International Astronomical Union]] |
| | 87 | +*[[American Astronomical Society]] |
| | 88 | +*[[National Optical Astronomy Observatories]] |
| | 89 | +*[[European Southern Observatory]] |
| | 90 | +*[http://www.rasc.ca Royal Astronomical Society of Canada] |
| | 91 | +*[http://www.ras.org.uk Royal Astronomical Society (UK)] |
| 96 | 92 | |
| | 93 | +== Amateur astronomy == |
| | 94 | + |
| 97 | 95 | Amateur astronomy is one of the oldest and most popular of hobbies. From the occasional stargazer to the most hardened deep sky object hunter, thousands of amateurs are involved in this branch of astronomy. Some topics in amateur astronomy include: |
| 98 | 96 | *[[Amateur astronomy]] |
| 99 | 97 | *[[Deep sky objects]] |
| — | — | @@ -105,10 +102,10 @@ |
| 106 | 103 | |
| 107 | 104 | ---- |
| 108 | 105 | |
| 109 | | -''See also [[Astronomer|Astronomers and Astrophysicists]], [[Amateur Astronomy]], [[History of astronomy]].'' |
| | 106 | +See also [[Astronomer|Astronomers and Astrophysicists]], [[Amateur Astronomy]], [[History of astronomy]]. |
| 110 | 107 | |
| 111 | | -'''Basic Concepts''' |
| 112 | | -<br>(wikipedia is not a dictionary. Do not add a new page unless the subject deserves one) |
| | 108 | +== Basic Concepts == |
| | 109 | + |
| 113 | 110 | *[[astronomical distances]] |
| 114 | 111 | *[[celestial sphere]] |
| 115 | 112 | *[[right ascension]] |
| — | — | @@ -145,9 +142,8 @@ |
| 146 | 143 | * [[Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology]] |
| 147 | 144 | * [[Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes]] |
| 148 | 145 | |
| 149 | | - |
| 150 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Astronomy and Astrophysics, please see [[Astronomy and Astrophysics basic topics]]. |
| 151 | 146 | ---- |
| | 147 | + |
| 152 | 148 | External links: |
| 153 | 149 | * [http://www.ency-astro.com/ Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics] |
| 154 | 150 | * [http://xxx.lanl.gov Los Alamos Astrophysics e-Print Database] |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Cooking.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[eo:Kuireco]][[fr:Cuisine]][[nl:Kookkunst]][[pl:Kulinaria]] |
| 3 | | -<b>Cooking</b> is the [[art]], [[science]], [[profession]], and [[hobby]] of preparing [[food]] for human consumption. The term is often used in the narrower sense of applying heat to chemically transform a food to change its flavor, texture, appearance, or nutritional properties. |
| | 3 | +'''Cooking''' is the [[art]], [[science]], [[profession]], and [[hobby]] of preparing [[food]] for human consumption. The term is often used in the narrower sense of applying heat to chemically transform a food to change its flavor, texture, appearance, or nutritional properties. |
| 4 | 4 | Heating food has several uses. |
| 5 | | -It can sterilize the food (depending on temperature, cooking time, and technique used), in addition to softening the food by turning [[collagen]] into [[gelatin]]. While cooking, an [[apron]] is usually worn. |
| | 5 | +It can sterilize the food (depending on temperature, cooking time, and technique used), in addition to softening the food by turning [[collagen]] into [[gelatin]]. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | 7 | Because eating is a universal human drive, cooking is a nearly universal cultural feature. Specific techniques and ingredients are often regional. See [[Cuisine]] for information about the many regional and ethnic food traditions. Please see [[food writing]] for some authors of books on cookery, food, and the history of food. |
| 8 | 8 | |
| — | — | @@ -45,4 +45,3 @@ |
| 46 | 46 | |
| 47 | 47 | For recipes, see the [[Wikipedia Cookbook]]. |
| 48 | 48 | |
| 49 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/History_of_science_and_technology.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[eo:Historio de Scienco kaj Teknologio]] |
| 3 | | -The '''history of science and technology''' (HST) is a field of [[history]] which examines how humanity's understanding of the natural world has changed over the millennia, and how this understanding has allowed us to generate technologies which have modified that world. Sayings such as, "Water runs downhill" are attempts to formulate rules that describe the workings of nature. |
| | 3 | +The '''history of science and technology''' (HST) is a field of [[history]] which examines how humanity's understanding of the natural world has changed over the millennia, and how this understanding has allowed us to generate technologies which have modified that world. Sayings such as, "Water runs downhill" are attempts to formulate rules that describe the workings of nature. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | 5 | From the philosophers of ancient times to the 21st century, science and technology advanced in fits and starts, bringing an ever-more comprehensive view of the world. Discoveries such as those of [[natural selection]], the structure of [[gene]]s and [[DNA]], and within [[psychology]] have radically altered how we humans see ourselves, often conflicting with [[religion|religious]] views. |
| 6 | 6 | New technologies let us visit other planets, travel faster than sound, and kill each other with greater efficiency. |
| — | — | @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ |
| 8 | 8 | HST aims to understand how [[science]] and [[technology]] progress and how we form theories by studying the lessons of the past, while also exploring the socio-political and cultural environment within which scientists and technologists work. |
| 9 | 9 | |
| 10 | 10 | ==== Challenge to orthodoxy ==== |
| 11 | | -A minor but persistent theme in the history of science and technology has been the poor reception often given to men who espouse ideas contrary to the prevailing orthodoxy. The story of [[Galileo]] is a case in point. Other natural philosophers and astronomers, especially in Italy, were loathe to "check" their theories by looking through the newly-invented telescope. Even in modern times, with the near-univeral acceptance of the [[scientific method]] and huge research budgets from government, academia and industry, unpopular or offensive ideas are often given short shrift. |
| | 11 | +A minor but persistent theme in the history of science and technology has been the poor reception often given to men who espouse ideas contrary to the prevailing orthodoxy. The story of [[Galileo]] is a case in point. Other natural philosophers and astronomers, especially in Italy, were loathe to "check" their theories by looking through the newly-invented telescope. Even in modern times, with the near-univeral acceptance of the [[scientific method]] and huge research budgets from government, academia and industry, unpopular or offensive ideas are often given short shrift. |
| 12 | 12 | |
| 13 | 13 | There is controversy over what the lesson of the Galileo story is. While some see Galileo's saga as an example of the arrogance of authority, others argue that today's rejection of such ideas can not be directly compared with examples such as Galileo. Theories which do follow the the principles of science closely, as Galileo did, are generally accepted however surprising they may be, whereas ideas that make yet unproven and seemingly unjustified assumptions are termed pseudoscience. |
| 14 | 14 | |
| — | — | @@ -18,7 +18,6 @@ |
| 19 | 19 | |
| 20 | 20 | ==== Major areas/Sub-fields ==== |
| 21 | 21 | |
| 22 | | - |
| 23 | 22 | === [[Science]] === |
| 24 | 23 | *Life Sciences |
| 25 | 24 | **[[Biology]] |
| — | — | @@ -114,6 +113,3 @@ |
| 115 | 114 | ---- |
| 116 | 115 | As History of X articles are written, please add them above, redirecting away from broader article. |
| 117 | 116 | |
| 118 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in History of Science and Technology, please see [[History of Science and Technology basic topics]]. |
| 119 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Theater.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[de:Spiele]][[eo:Teatro]][[nl:Kleinkunst]] |
| 3 | | -'''Theater''' is that branch of the [[performing arts]] concerned with acting out stories using combinations of speech, gesture, music, sound and spectacle - indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts. Theater takes such forms as [[opera]], [[ballet]], [[mime]], [[pantomime]]. "[[Drama]]" is that branch of theater in which speech, from written text ([[Theatre/play|plays]] or "[[dramatic literature]]") or improvised, is paramount. |
| | 3 | +'''Theater''' is that branch of the [[performing arts]] concerned with acting out stories using combinations of speech, gesture, music, sound and spectacle - indeed any one or more elements of the other performing arts. Theater takes such forms as [[opera]], [[ballet]], [[mime]], [[pantomime]]. "[[Drama]]" is that branch of theater in which speech, from written text ([[Theatre/play|plays]] or "[[dramatic literature]]") or improvised, is paramount. |
| 4 | 4 | [[Theatre Techniques]] |
| 5 | 5 | 20th Century American Theater: |
| 6 | 6 | : [[Eugene O'Neill|Eugene O'Neill]] |
| — | — | @@ -59,6 +59,3 @@ |
| 60 | 60 | |
| 61 | 61 | During the [[Elizabethan era]] in [[England]], theatres were constructed of wood and were circular in form, like the [[Globe Theatre]] in [[London]], home to [[William Shakespeare]]'s troupe of actors. The Globe has now been rebuilt as a fully working and producing theatre near its original site (largely thanks to the efforts of film director [[Sam Wanamaker]]) to give modern audiences an idea of the environment for which Shakespeare and other playwrights of the period were writing. |
| 62 | 62 | |
| 63 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics about theater, please see [[theater basic topics]]. |
| 64 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Transport.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,6 +1,5 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | '''Transport''', or '''transportation''' (as it is called in the United States), is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. The term is derived from the [[Latin]] ''Trans'' meaning ''across'' and ''Portare'' meaning ''carrying'' . Motor Vehicles, Trains, Airplanes, and Ships are the most common modes of modern transport. Transport and [[communication]] are both substitutes and complements, the growth in transport would be impossible without communication, and the increase of one generally leads to more of the other. |
| 3 | 3 | |
| 4 | | - |
| 5 | 4 | * General |
| 6 | 5 | ** [[Civil engineering]] |
| 7 | 6 | ** [[Department of Transportation]] |
| — | — | @@ -158,9 +157,5 @@ |
| 159 | 158 | ** [[Teleportation]] |
| 160 | 159 | ** [[Starship]] |
| 161 | 160 | |
| 162 | | - |
| 163 | 161 | (STILL NEEDS MUCH WORK) |
| 164 | 162 | |
| 165 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in transport, please see [[transport basic topics]]. |
| 166 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Linguistics.txt |
| — | — | @@ -6,14 +6,15 @@ |
| 7 | 7 | |
| 8 | 8 | '''Linguistics''' is the study of [[language]]. One who engages in this study is called a [[linguist]]. |
| 9 | 9 | |
| 10 | | -Note that, at least in the United States, those who identify themselves as linguists tend to use the term "linguistics" to refer to a fairly technical subset of language study. "Linguistics", for them, does not include learning to speak foreign languages (except insofar as this helps to perform more technical analysis) or to literary analysis, for example. Nor is "linguistics" usually meant to include such proscriptive efforts as found in Strunk and White's <i>The Elements of Style</i>; linguistics usually seeks to study what people do, not what they <i>should</i> do. |
| | 10 | +Note that, at least in the United States, those who identify themselves as linguists tend to use the term "linguistics" to refer to a fairly technical subset of language study. "Linguistics", for them, does not include learning to speak foreign languages (except insofar as this helps to perform more technical analysis) or to literary analysis, for example. Nor is linguistics usually meant to include such proscriptive efforts as found in Strunk and White's ''The Elements of Style''; linguistics usually seeks to study what people do, not what they ''should'' do. |
| 11 | 11 | |
| 12 | 12 | ---- |
| 13 | | -<b>research areas of linguistics:</b> |
| | 13 | +Research areas of linguistics: |
| | 14 | + |
| 14 | 15 | [[phonetics]], [[phonology]], [[syntax]], [[semantics]], [[pragmatics]], [[etymology]], [[lexicology]], [[lexicography]], [[theoretical linguistics]], [[historical-comparative linguistics]] and [[descriptive linguistics]], [[pragmatics]], [[etymology]], [[computational linguistics]], [[corpus linguistics]], [[semiotics]]. |
| 15 | 16 | |
| 16 | 17 | ---- |
| 17 | | -<b>inter-disciplinary linguistic research:</b> |
| | 18 | +Inter-disciplinary linguistic research: |
| 18 | 19 | |
| 19 | 20 | [[historical linguistics]], [[Orthography]], [[Writing Systems]], [[comparative linguistics]], [[cryptanalysis]], [[decipherment]], [[sociolinguistics]], [[psycholinguistics]], [[language acquisition]], [[evolutionary linguistics]], [[anthropological linguistics]], [[stratificational linguistics]], [[cognitive science]], [[neurolinguistics]], automated [[speech recognition|speech]] and [[speaker recognition]], or more generally, [[speech processing]] |
| 20 | 21 | |
| — | — | @@ -22,10 +23,11 @@ |
| 23 | 24 | Linguists generally see language as having several [[linguistics layers]], and assume that all natural languages have the same number of layers. |
| 24 | 25 | |
| 25 | 26 | |
| 26 | | -A speaker of English recognizes that "make" is a different word from "makes," so the s-suffix is a distinct morpheme. This example also illustrates the two kinds of morphemes, unbound (which are meaningful on their own) and bound (which have meaning when combined with another morpheme). Thus, the word "schoolyard" consists of two unbound morphemes ("school" and "yard"), while the word "morpheme" consists, or traditionally consisted, of two bound morphemes ("morph" and "eme"). As the example of "morpheme" reveals, bounded morphemes may become unbounded: "morph" has been adopted in linguistics for the phonological realization of a morpheme, and the verb "morph" was coined to describe a type of visual effect done with computers. |
| | 27 | +A speaker of English recognizes that "make" is a different word from "makes", so the s-suffix is a distinct morpheme. This example also illustrates the two kinds of morphemes, unbound (which are meaningful on their own) and bound (which have meaning when combined with another morpheme). Thus, the word "schoolyard" consists of two unbound morphemes ("school" and "yard"), while the word "morpheme" consists, or traditionally consisted, of two bound morphemes ("morph" and "eme"). As the example of "morpheme" reveals, bounded morphemes may become unbounded: "morph" has been adopted in linguistics for the phonological realization of a morpheme, and the verb "morph" was coined to describe a type of visual effect done with computers. |
| 27 | 28 | |
| 28 | | -A morpheme may have different realizations (morphs) in different contexts. For example, the verb morpheme "do" of English has three quite distinct pronunciations in the words "do", "does" (with suffix "-s"), and "don't" (with "-n't"). Such alternating morphs of a morpheme are called its allomorphs. |
| 29 | 29 | |
| | 30 | +A morpheme may have different realizations (morphs) in different contexts. For example, the verb morpheme "do" of English has three quite distinct pronunciations in the words "do", "does", (with suffix "-s"), and "don't" (with "-n't"). Such alternating morphs of a morpheme are called its allomorphs. |
| | 31 | + |
| 30 | 32 | Patterns of combinations of words of a language are known as [[syntax]]. The term grammar usually covers syntax plus [[Morphology in linguistics |morphology]], the study of word formation. |
| 31 | 33 | |
| 32 | 34 | [[Semantics]] is the study of the meanings of words and of syntactic constructions. |
| — | — | @@ -34,25 +36,17 @@ |
| 35 | 37 | [[Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky's]] formal model of language, [[transformational-generative grammar]], developed under the influence of his teacher [[Zellig Harris]], who was in turn strongly influenced by Bloomfield, has been the dominant one from the [[1960s]]. |
| 36 | 38 | * [[Transformational-generative grammar]] |
| 37 | 39 | |
| 38 | | - |
| 39 | 40 | * [[cognitive linguistics]] |
| 40 | 41 | |
| 41 | 42 | A few of the important figures in this movement are [[Michael Halliday]], whose [[systemic-functional grammar]] is pursued widely in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[China]], and [[Japan]]; [[Dell Hymes]], who developed a pragmatic approach called The Ethnography of Speaking; [[George Lakoff]], [[Len Talmy]], and [[Ronald Langacker]], who were pioneers in cognitive linguistics; [[Charles Fillmore]] and [[Adele Goldberg]], who are associated with [[construction grammar]]; and linguists developing several varieties of what they call functional grammar, including [[Talmy Givon]] and [[Robert Van Valin, Jr.]] |
| 42 | 43 | |
| 43 | | - |
| 44 | 44 | One speaks also of [[philology]]. |
| 45 | 45 | |
| 46 | | - |
| 47 | | - |
| 48 | | - |
| 49 | | - |
| 50 | 46 | Representation of speech: |
| 51 | 47 | |
| 52 | 48 | * [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), a system used to write down and reproduce the sounds of human speech. |
| 53 | 49 | * [[SAMPA]], an [[ASCII]]-only transcription for the IPA used by some authors. See also http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/home.htm |
| 54 | 50 | |
| 55 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Linguistics, please see [[Linguistics basic topics]]. |
| 56 | | - |
| 57 | 51 | ---- |
| 58 | | -<b>see also:</b> [[famous linguists]], [[history of linguistics]], [[linguist]], [[structuralism]] |
| | 52 | +See also: [[famous linguists]], [[history of linguistics]], [[linguist]], [[structuralism]] |
| 59 | 53 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Philosophy.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,60 +1,60 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[de:Philosophie]][[eo:Filozofio]][[nl:Filosofie]][[pl:Filozofia]][[it:filosofia]] |
| 3 | | -The definition of '''philosophy''' is a philosophical question in its own right. But for purposes of introducing the concept, we can say that, approximately, it is the study of the meaning and justification of beliefs about the most general, or universal, aspects of things--a study which is carried out not by experimentation or careful observation, but instead typically by formulating problems carefully, offering solutions to them, giving arguments for the solutions, and engaging in the [[dialectic]] about all of the above. Philosophy studies such concepts as [[existence]], [[goodness]], [[knowledge]], and [[beauty]]. It asks questions such as "What is goodness, in general?" and "Is knowledge even possible?" Famous philosophers include [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Rene Descartes]], [[John Locke]], and [[Immanuel Kant]]. |
| | 3 | +The definition of '''philosophy''' is a philosophical question in its own right. But for purposes of introducing the concept, we can say that, approximately, it is the study of the meaning and justification of beliefs about the most general, or universal, aspects of things--a study which is carried out not by experimentation or careful observation, but instead typically by formulating problems carefully, offering solutions to them, giving arguments for the solutions, and engaging in the [[dialectic]] about all of the above. Philosophy studies such concepts as [[existence]], [[goodness]], [[knowledge]], and [[beauty]]. It asks questions such as "What is goodness, in general?" and "Is knowledge even possible?" Famous philosophers include [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Rene Descartes]], [[John Locke]], and [[Immanuel Kant]]. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | | -Popularly, the word "[[Philosophy]]" is often used to mean any form of wisdom, or any person's perspective on life (as in "philosophy of life") or basic principles behind or method of achieving something (as in "my philosophy about driving on highways"). That is different from the academic meaning, and it is the academic meaning which is used here. |
| | 5 | +Popularly, the word "philosophy" is often used to mean any form of wisdom, or any person's perspective on life (as in "philosophy of life") or basic principles behind or method of achieving something (as in "my philosophy about driving on highways"). That is different from the academic meaning, and it is the academic meaning which is used here. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | | -Originally, "philosophy" meant simply "the love of wisdom." "Philo-" comes from the Greek word <i>philein</i>, meaning to love, and "-sophy" comes from the Greek <i>sophia</i>, or wisdom. "Philosopher" replaced the word "sophist" (from ''sophoi''), which was used to describe "wise men," teachers of [[rhetoric]], which were important in [[Athenian democracy]]. Some of the first ''[[sophist]]s'' were what we would now call philosophers. |
| | 7 | +Originally, "philosophy" meant simply "the love of wisdom". Philo- comes from the Greek word ''philein'', meaning to love, and -sophy comes from the Greek ''sophia'', or wisdom. "Philosopher" replaced the word "sophist" (from ''sophoi''), which was used to describe "wise men", teachers of [[rhetoric]], which were important in [[Athenian democracy]]. Some of the first ''[[sophist]]s'' were what we would now call philosophers. |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | | -Originally the scope of philosophy was <i>all</i> intellectual endeavor. It has long since come to mean the study of an especially abstract, nonexperimental intellectual endeavor. In fact, ''philosophy'' is itself a notoriously difficult word to define; the question "What is philosophy?" is itself, famously, a vexed philosophical question. It is often observed that philosophers are unique in the extent to which they disagree about what their field even ''is''. |
| | 9 | +Originally the scope of philosophy was all intellectual endeavor. It has long since come to mean the study of an especially abstract, nonexperimental intellectual endeavor. In fact, ''philosophy'' is itself a notoriously difficult word to define; the question "What is philosophy?" is itself, famously, a vexed philosophical question. It is often observed that philosophers are unique in the extent to which they disagree about what their field even ''is''. |
| 10 | 10 | |
| 11 | | -The introduction of the term "philosophy" was ascribed to the Greek thinker [[Pythagoras]] (see [[Diogenes Laertius]]: "De vita et moribus philosophorum", I, 12; [[Cicero]]: "Tusculanae disputationes", V, 8-9). This ascription is certainly based on a passage in a lost work of [[Herakleides Pontikos]], a disciple of [[Aristotle]]. It is considered to be part of the widespread Pythagoras legends of this time. In fact the term "philosophy" was not in use long before [[Plato]]. |
| | 11 | +The introduction of the term philosophy was ascribed to the Greek thinker [[Pythagoras]] (see [[Diogenes Laertius]]: "De vita et moribus philosophorum", I, 12; [[Cicero]]: "Tusculanae disputationes", V, 8-9). This ascription is certainly based on a passage in a lost work of [[Herakleides Pontikos]], a disciple of [[Aristotle]]. It is considered to be part of the widespread Pythagoras legends of this time. In fact the term philosophy was not in use long before [[Plato]]. |
| 12 | 12 | |
| 13 | 13 | For further considerations about the very notion of philosophy, please see [[definition of philosophy]]. |
| 14 | 14 | |
| 15 | 15 | === [[History of philosophy]] === |
| 16 | 16 | |
| 17 | | -Philosophers divide the long history of Western philosophy into [[ancient philosophy]], [[medieval philosophy]], [[modern philosophy]], and [[contemporary philosophy]]. [[Ancient philosophy]] was dominated by the trio of [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], and [[Aristotle]]. In [[medieval philosophy]], topics in metaphysics and philosophy of religion held sway, and the most important names included [[Duns Scotus]], [[Peter Abelard]], and [[Aquinas]]. [[Modern philosophy]] generally means philosophy from 1600 until about 1900, and which includes many distinguished [[Early modern philosophy|early modern philosophers]], such as [[Rene Descartes|Ren&eacute; Descartes]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]], [[David Hume]], and [[Immanuel Kant]]. [[Nineteenth-century philosophy]] is often treated as its own period, as it was dominated by [[post-Kantian philosophy|post-Kantian]] German and idealist philosophers like [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|G. W. F Hegel]], [[Karl Marx]], and [[F. H. Bradley]]; two other important thinkers were [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. |
| | 17 | +Philosophers divide the long history of Western philosophy into [[ancient philosophy]], [[medieval philosophy]], [[modern philosophy]], and [[contemporary philosophy]]. [[Ancient philosophy]] was dominated by the trio of [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], and [[Aristotle]]. In [[medieval philosophy]], topics in metaphysics and philosophy of religion held sway, and the most important names included [[Duns Scotus]], [[Peter Abelard]], and [[Aquinas]]. [[Modern philosophy]] generally means philosophy from 1600 until about 1900, and which includes many distinguished [[Early modern philosophy|early modern philosophers]], such as [[Rene Descartes|René Descartes]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[John Locke]], [[David Hume]], and [[Immanuel Kant]]. [[Nineteenth-century philosophy]] is often treated as its own period, as it was dominated by [[post-Kantian philosophy|post-Kantian]] German and idealist philosophers like [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|G. W. F Hegel]], [[Karl Marx]], and [[F. H. Bradley]]; two other important thinkers were [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. |
| 18 | 18 | |
| 19 | 19 | In the [[twentieth-century philosophy|twentieth century]], philosophers in Europe and the United States took diverging paths. The so-called [[analytic philosophy|analytic philosophers]], including [[Bertrand Russell]], [[G. E. Moore]], and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], were centered in [[Oxford]] and [[Cambridge]], and were joined by logical empiricists emigrating from Austria and Germany (for example, [[Rudolf Carnap]]) and their students and others in the United States (such as, [[W. V. Quine]], [[Donald Davidson]], and [[Saul Kripke]], and other English-speaking countries (for example, [[A. J. Ayer]]). |
| 20 | 20 | |
| 21 | | -On the [[Continental philosophy|continent of Europe]] (especially Germany and France), the [[phenomenology|phenomenologist]] Germans [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[Martin Heidegger]] led the way, followed soon by [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and other [[existentialism|existentialists]]; this led via other "[[isms]]" to [[postmodernism]], which dominates schools of [[critical theory]] as well as philosophy departments in France and Germany, which continue the projects that these philosophers have pursued. |
| | 21 | +On the [[Continental philosophy|continent of Europe]] (especially Germany and France), the [[phenomenology|phenomenologist]] Germans [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[Martin Heidegger]] led the way, followed soon by [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and other [[existentialism|existentialists]]; this led via other "[[isms]]" to [[postmodernism]], which dominates schools of [[critical theory]] as well as philosophy departments in France and Germany, which continue the projects that these philosophers have pursued. |
| 22 | 22 | |
| 23 | 23 | Please see our more exhaustive list of [[Philosopher|philosophers]] as well as the [[history of philosophy]] article, from which the above was taken. |
| 24 | 24 | |
| 25 | 25 | === [[Philosophical subdisciplines]] === |
| 26 | 26 | |
| 27 | | -As with any field of academic study, philosophy has a number of subdisciplines. Philosophy in fact seems to have a huge number of subdisciplines, in no small part due to the fact that there tends to be a "philosophy of" nearly everything else that is studied. Those new to philosophy are usually invited particularly to pay attention to [[logic]], [[metaphysics]], [[philosophy of mind]], [[philosophy of language]], [[epistemology]], [[philosophy of science]], [[ethics]], and [[political philosophy]] as--arguably, of course--the "central disciplines" of philosophy. |
| | 27 | +As with any field of academic study, philosophy has a number of subdisciplines. Philosophy in fact seems to have a huge number of subdisciplines, in no small part due to the fact that there tends to be a "philosophy of" nearly everything else that is studied. Those new to philosophy are usually invited particularly to pay attention to [[logic]], [[metaphysics]], [[philosophy of mind]], [[philosophy of language]], [[epistemology]], [[philosophy of science]], [[ethics]], and [[political philosophy]] as--arguably, of course--the "central disciplines" of philosophy. |
| 28 | 28 | |
| 29 | | -*[[Aesthetics]]: the study of basic philosophical questions about [[art]] and [[beauty]]. Sometimes [[philosophy of art]] is used to describe only questions about art, with "aesthetics" the more general term. |
| | 29 | +*[[Aesthetics]]: the study of basic philosophical questions about [[art]] and [[beauty]]. Sometimes [[philosophy of art]] is used to describe only questions about art, with "aesthetics" the more general term. |
| 30 | 30 | *[[Epistemology]]: the study of [[knowledge]], its nature, [[skepticism|possibility]], and [[epistemic justification|justification]]. |
| 31 | 31 | *[[Ethics]]: the study of what makes actions right or wrong, and of how theories of [[right action]] can be applied to special moral problems. Subdisciplines include [[meta-ethics]], [[value theory]], [[theory of conduct]], and [[applied ethics]]. |
| 32 | 32 | *[[History of philosophy]]: the study of what philosophers up until recent times have written, its interpretation, who influenced whom, and so forth. The bulk of questions in history of philosophy are interpretive questions. |
| 33 | 33 | *[[Logic]]: the study of the standards of correct [[argument|argumentation]]. Includes [[formal logic]], such as [[Aristotelian Syllogisms]] and [[propositional logic]]. |
| 34 | | -*[[Meta-philosophy]]: the study of [[philosophical method]] and the goals of philosophy. The term "philosophy of philosophy" is sometimes used more or less as a synonym. |
| | 34 | +*[[Meta-philosophy]]: the study of [[philosophical method]] and the goals of philosophy. The term "philosophy of philosophy" is sometimes used more or less as a synonym. |
| 35 | 35 | *[[Metaphysics]] (which includes [[ontology]]): the study of the most basic [[category|categories]] of things, such as [[existence]], [[object]]s, [[property|properties]], [[causality]], and so forth. Metaphysics often is taken to include questions now studied by other philosophical subdisciplines, such as [[the mind-body problem]] and [[free will and determinism]]. |
| 36 | 36 | *[[Philosophy of biology]]: the philosophical study of some basic concepts of biology, including the notion of a [[species]] and whether biological concepts are reducible to nonbiological concepts. |
| 37 | 37 | *[[Philosophy of education]]: the study of the purpose and most basic methods of education or learning. |
| 38 | 38 | *[[Philosophy of language]]: the study of the concepts of [[meaning]] and [[truth]]. |
| 39 | 39 | *[[Philosophy of mathematics]]: the study of philosophical questions raised by mathematics, such as, what numbers are, and what the nature and origins of our [[mathematics|mathematical]] knowledge are. |
| 40 | 40 | *[[Philosophy of mind]]: the philosophical study of the nature of the [[mind]], and its relation to the [[body]] and the rest of the world. |
| 41 | | -*[[Philosophy of perception]]: the philosophical study of topics related to perception; the question what the "immediate objects" of perception are has been especially important. |
| | 41 | +*[[Philosophy of perception]]: the philosophical study of topics related to perception; the question what the "immediate objects" of perception are has been especially important. |
| 42 | 42 | *[[Philosophy of physics]]: the philosophical study of some basic concepts of physics, including [[space]], [[time]], and [[force]]. |
| 43 | 43 | *[[Philosophy of psychology]]: the study of some fundamental questions about the methods and concepts of psychology and psychiatry, such as the meaningfulness of [[Sigmund Freud|Freudian]] concepts; this is sometimes treated as including philosophy of mind. |
| 44 | 44 | *[[Philosophy of religion]]: the study of the meaning of the concept of [[God]] and of the rationality of belief in the existence of God. |
| 45 | | -*[[Philosophy of science]]: includes not only, as subdisciplines, the "philosophies of" the special sciences (i.e., physics, biology, etc.), but also questions about induction, [[scientific method]], scientific progress, etc. |
| | 45 | +*[[Philosophy of science]]: includes not only, as subdisciplines, the "philosophies of" the special sciences (i.e., physics, biology, etc.), but also questions about induction, [[scientific method]], scientific progress, etc. |
| 46 | 46 | *[[Philosophy of social sciences]]: the philosophical study of some basic concepts, methods, and presuppositions of social sciences such as sociology and economics. |
| 47 | 47 | *[[Political philosophy]]: the study of basic topics concerning [[government]], including the purpose of [[the state]], political [[justice]], [[political freedom]], the nature of law, and [[the justification of punishment]]. |
| 48 | 48 | * [[Value theory]]: the study of the concept [[value]]. Also called [[theory of value]]. Sometimes this is taken to be equivalent to [[axiology]] (a term not in as much currency in the English-speaking world as it once was), and sometimes is taken to be, instead of a foundational field, an overarching field including ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy, i.e., the philosophical subdisciplines that crucially depend on questions of value. |
| 49 | 49 | |
| 50 | 50 | === How to get started in philosophy === |
| 51 | 51 | |
| 52 | | -It is a platitude (at least among people who write introductions to philosophy) that everybody has a philosophy, though they might not all realize it or be able to defend it. If you're already interested in studying philosophy, your reason might be to improve the way you live or think somehow, or you simply wish to get acquainted with one of the most ancient areas of human thought. On the other hand, if you don't see what all the fuss is about, it might help to read [[the motivation to philosophize]], which explains what motivates many people to "do philosophy," and get an [[Philosophical method/Introduction|introduction to philosophical method]], which is important to understanding how philosophers think. It might also help to acquaint yourself with some considerations about [[definition of philosophy|just what philosophy is]]. |
| | 52 | +It is a platitude (at least among people who write introductions to philosophy) that everybody has a philosophy, though they might not all realize it or be able to defend it. If you're already interested in studying philosophy, your reason might be to improve the way you live or think somehow, or you simply wish to get acquainted with one of the most ancient areas of human thought. On the other hand, if you don't see what all the fuss is about, it might help to read [[the motivation to philosophize]], which explains what motivates many people to "do philosophy", and get an [[Philosophical method/Introduction|introduction to philosophical method]], which is important to understanding how philosophers think. It might also help to acquaint yourself with some considerations about [[definition of philosophy|just what philosophy is]]. |
| 53 | 53 | |
| 54 | 54 | === Applied philosophy === |
| 55 | 55 | |
| 56 | 56 | Philosophy has applications. The most obvious applications are those in [[ethics]]--[[applied ethics]] in particular--and in [[political philosophy]]. The political philosophies of [[John Locke]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], [[Karl Marx]], and [[John Stuart Mill]] have shaped and been used to justify governments and their actions. [[Philosophy of education]] deserves special mention, as well; [[progressive education]] as championed by [[John Dewey]] has had a profound impact on educational practices in the United States in the twentieth century. |
| 57 | 57 | |
| 58 | | -Other important, but less immediate applications can be found in [[epistemology]], which might help one to regulate one's notions of what knowledge, evidence, and justified belief are. [[Philosophy of science]] discusses the underpinnings of the [[scientific method]], among other topics sometimes useful to scientists. [[Aesthetics]] can help to interpret discussions of art. Even [[ontology]], surely the most abstract and least practical-seeming branch of philosophy, has had important consequences for [[logic]] and [[computer science]]. In general, the various "philosophies of," such as [[philosophy of law]], can provide workers in their respective fields with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields. |
| | 58 | +Other important, but less immediate applications can be found in [[epistemology]], which might help one to regulate one's notions of what knowledge, evidence, and justified belief are. [[Philosophy of science]] discusses the underpinnings of the [[scientific method]], among other topics sometimes useful to scientists. [[Aesthetics]] can help to interpret discussions of art. Even [[ontology]], surely the most abstract and least practical-seeming branch of philosophy, has had important consequences for [[logic]] and [[computer science]]. In general, the various "philosophies of", such as [[philosophy of law]], can provide workers in their respective fields with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields. |
| 59 | 59 | |
| 60 | 60 | Moreover, recently, there has been developing a burgeoning profession devoted to applying philosophy to the problems of ordinary life: [[philosophical counseling]]. |
| 61 | 61 | |
| — | — | @@ -62,37 +62,37 @@ |
| 63 | 63 | |
| 64 | 64 | On the view of some in the (loosely described) [[Anglo-American philosophy|Anglo-American philosophical tradition]] and the closely-related tradition of the [[Vienna Circle]], philosophy ought to emulate the exact methods of [[science]] and [[mathematics]]. But strictly speaking, philosophy is to be distinguished from science. It is not, at least, part of philosophy to do [[experiment]]s. Experiments play little, if any, role in the solution of [[philosophical problems]]. Someone might object to this, if he knows much about the intersection of philosophy and science. Philosophers are often referring to and interpreting the scientific work of [[physics|physicists]], who do experiments about [[space and time]] and [[quantum mechanics]] (see [[philosophy of physics]]). They are often referring to experimental work done in [[psychology]] when they discuss philosophy of psychology (see [[philosophy of psychology]]). In general, many philosophers who study [[philosophy of science]] are trained scientists. |
| 65 | 65 | |
| 66 | | -There is no doubting that philosophers sometimes <i>interpret</i> and <i>refer</i> <i>to</i> experimental work of various kinds--especially in the philosophies of the so-called "[[special sciences]]," as in philosophy of physics and philosophy of psychology. But this is not surprising: the purpose of those branches of philosophy, branches like philosophy of physics, is to help interpret the ''philosophical'' aspects of experimental work. It is not the <i>philosophers</i>, in their capacities <i>as</i> philosophers, who do the experiments and who formulate explanatory theories of experimentally-tabulated facts. |
| | 66 | +There is no doubting that philosophers sometimes ''interpret'' and ''refer to'' experimental work of various kinds--especially in the philosophies of the so-called "[[special sciences]]", as in philosophy of physics and philosophy of psychology. But this is not surprising: the purpose of those branches of philosophy, branches like philosophy of physics, is to help interpret the ''philosophical'' aspects of experimental work. It is not the philosophers, in their capacities as philosophers, who do the experiments and who formulate explanatory theories of experimentally-tabulated facts. |
| 67 | 67 | |
| 68 | | -There is a basic historical reason why philosophy is not experimental. Originally, the scope of philosophy was <i>all</i> abstract intellectual endeavor. Even up to early modern times, the people we now call "scientists" were referred to as "natural philosophers," i.e., philosophers who study nature. Over the years--it is very commonly observed--the scope of philosophy has gotten smaller and smaller, as different sciences have spun off and become independent disciplines in their own right. Some relatively early "spin-offs" were physics and chemistry; more recently, psychology has spun off. |
| | 68 | +There is a basic historical reason why philosophy is not experimental. Originally, the scope of philosophy was all abstract intellectual endeavor. Even up to early modern times, the people we now call "scientists" were referred to as "natural philosophers", i.e., philosophers who study nature. Over the years--it is very commonly observed--the scope of philosophy has gotten smaller and smaller, as different sciences have spun off and become independent disciplines in their own right. Some relatively early "spin-offs" were physics and chemistry; more recently, psychology has spun off. |
| 69 | 69 | |
| 70 | | -One might wonder why scholars began to treat various special sciences as independent from philosophy. The answer for any given branched-off science is that it began to be prosecuted using rigorous, agreed-upon methods of observation and experimentation. Philosophy in its core sense, the sense that remains today, is essentially something that one should be able to do from one&#8217;s armchair, surrounded, at most, by some books and articles that scientists (but certainly other philosophers) write. |
| | 70 | +One might wonder why scholars began to treat various special sciences as independent from philosophy. The answer for any given branched-off science is that it began to be prosecuted using rigorous, agreed-upon methods of observation and experimentation. Philosophy in its core sense, the sense that remains today, is essentially something that one should be able to do from one's armchair, surrounded, at most, by some books and articles that scientists (but certainly other philosophers) write. |
| 71 | 71 | |
| 72 | | -Of course, philosophy is far from being totally non-observational or non-empirical. Certainly philosophy makes essential use of observations about the world. But they are, we might say, very <i>general</i> observations, observations like "It seems to me I make free choices" and "It seems to me that killing another person, if ever necessary, requires a really good excuse." Observations like this ''can'' require careful attention. But most (not all) philosophical topics require no more <i>specialized</i> knowledge than the average educated person has, except for specialized knowledge about philosophy itself (such as [[philosophical jargon]]). |
| | 72 | +Of course, philosophy is far from being totally non-observational or non-empirical. Certainly philosophy makes essential use of observations about the world. But they are, we might say, very ''general'' observations, observations like "It seems to me I make free choices" and "It seems to me that killing another person, if ever necessary, requires a really good excuse". Observations like this ''can'' require careful attention. But most (not all) philosophical topics require no more ''specialized'' knowledge than the average educated person has, except for specialized knowledge about philosophy itself (such as [[philosophical jargon]]). |
| 73 | 73 | |
| 74 | | -Some beginners confuse philosophy and [[psychology]], yet these are different fields. Philosophy does study the [[mind]], just as psychology does, but it also studies other things <i>besides</i> the mind, too, about which psychology has nothing to say. The ways philosophers and psychologists study the mind differ, as well. The study of the mind involved in doing psychology involves careful, specific observation of particular mental phenomena, and experimentation; by contrast, philosophers think about more general aspects of the mind, questions like, "What is [[consciousness]]?" and "What is the relation between mind and body?" |
| | 74 | +Some beginners confuse philosophy and [[psychology]], yet these are different fields. Philosophy does study the [[mind]], just as psychology does, but it also studies other things ''besides'' the mind, too, about which psychology has nothing to say. The ways philosophers and psychologists study the mind differ, as well. The study of the mind involved in doing psychology involves careful, specific observation of particular mental phenomena, and experimentation; by contrast, philosophers think about more general aspects of the mind, questions like, "What is [[consciousness]]?" and "What is the relation between mind and body?" |
| 75 | 75 | |
| 76 | 76 | === Philosophy vs. religious studies and classics === |
| 77 | 77 | |
| 78 | | -What distinguishes philosophy from religious studies, most of which also is not experimental? Parts of theology, those which ask about what [[God]] is and how to prove that God exists, clearly overlap with what philosophers call "[[philosophy of religion]]." That is not a problem. Similarly, classics, or study of ancient Greece and Rome, studies the Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato, and so classics overlaps with an area of philosophy, namely history of [[Greek philosophy]], to that extent. That is not a problem either. Neither of these overlaps muddies the concepts of philosophy, of religious studies, or of classics. |
| | 78 | +What distinguishes philosophy from religious studies, most of which also is not experimental? Parts of theology, those which ask about what [[God]] is and how to prove that God exists, clearly overlap with what philosophers call "[[philosophy of religion]]". That is not a problem. Similarly, classics, or study of ancient Greece and Rome, studies the Greek philosophers Socrates and Plato, and so classics overlaps with an area of philosophy, namely history of [[Greek philosophy]], to that extent. That is not a problem either. Neither of these overlaps muddies the concepts of philosophy, of religious studies, or of classics. |
| 79 | 79 | |
| 80 | | -But consider that other part of religious studies, the <i>empirical</i> part, which often focuses on comparative study of different world religions. That part of religious studies can be distinguished from philosophy in just the way that any other social science can be distinguished from philosophy. Namely, it involves specific observations of particular phenomena, here particular religious practices, and philosophy does not. |
| | 80 | +But consider that other part of religious studies, the ''empirical'' part, which often focuses on comparative study of different world religions. That part of religious studies can be distinguished from philosophy in just the way that any other social science can be distinguished from philosophy. Namely, it involves specific observations of particular phenomena, here particular religious practices, and philosophy does not. |
| 81 | 81 | |
| 82 | 82 | === Philosophy vs. mathematics === |
| 83 | 83 | |
| 84 | 84 | [[Mathematics]] differs from philosophy for other reasons. It uses some very specific, rigorous methods of proof that philosophers sometimes (only rarely) try to emulate, but rarely, if ever, duplicate with the same degree of rigor. As a result, mathematicians hardly ever disagree about results, while philosophers of course do disagree about theirs. Besides, most philosophers do not even try to make their work rigorous in a mathematical sense. Unlike mathematicians, philosophers disagree about their [[philosophical method|methods]], and their methodological differences can often be used account for their different conclusions. |
| 85 | 85 | |
| 86 | | -Another way to distinguish philosophy from mathematics is this. Math, beyond a certain basic level, requires some <i>extremely</i> specialized knowledge, which can be obtained only by dint of extremely hard labor and concentration. It is not the sort of discipline that can be pursued with the knowledge that the average educated person has. Philosophy usually does require hard labor and concentration, but at least a philosopher can often explain his question, with not <i>too</i> much difficulty, to an intelligent nonphilosopher in under ten minutes. |
| | 86 | +Another way to distinguish philosophy from mathematics is this. Math, beyond a certain basic level, requires some ''extremely'' specialized knowledge, which can be obtained only by dint of extremely hard labor and concentration. It is not the sort of discipline that can be pursued with the knowledge that the average educated person has. Philosophy usually does require hard labor and concentration, but at least a philosopher can often explain his question, with not ''too'' much difficulty, to an intelligent nonphilosopher in under ten minutes. |
| 87 | 87 | |
| 88 | 88 | === Some tentative generalizations about what philosophy is === |
| 89 | 89 | |
| 90 | 90 | So philosophy, it seems, is a discipline that draws on knowledge that the average educated person has, and it does not make use of experimentation and careful observation, though it may interpret philosophical aspects of experiment and observation. |
| 91 | 91 | |
| 92 | | -More positively, one might say that philosophy is a discipline that examines the meaning and justification of certain of our most basic, fundamental beliefs, according to a [[philosophical method/Introduction|loose set of general methods]]. But what we might mean by the words "basic, fundamental beliefs"? |
| | 92 | +More positively, one might say that philosophy is a discipline that examines the meaning and justification of certain of our most basic, fundamental beliefs, according to a [[philosophical method/Introduction|loose set of general methods]]. But what we might mean by the words "basic, fundamental beliefs"? |
| 93 | 93 | |
| 94 | | -A belief is fundamental if it concerns those aspects of the [[universe]] which are <i>most</i> <i>commonly</i> found, which are found everywhere: the <i>universal</i> aspects of things. Philosophy studies, for example, what <i>[[existence]]</i> <i>itself</i> is. It also studies [[value]]--the [[good]]ness of things--in general. Surely in human life we find the relevance of value or goodness everywhere, not just moral goodness, though that might be very important, but even more generally, goodness in the sense of anything that is actually desirable, the sense, for example, in which an apple, a painting, and a person can <i>all</i> be good. (If indeed there is a single sense in which they are all called "good.") |
| | 94 | +A belief is fundamental if it concerns those aspects of the [[universe]] which are ''most commonly'' found, which are found everywhere: the ''universal'' aspects of things. Philosophy studies, for example, what [[existence]] itself is. It also studies [[value]]--the [[good]]ness of things--in general. Surely in human life we find the relevance of value or goodness everywhere, not just moral goodness, though that might be very important, but even more generally, goodness in the sense of anything that is actually desirable, the sense, for example, in which an apple, a painting, and a person can all be good. (If indeed there is a single sense in which they are all called "good".) |
| 95 | 95 | |
| 96 | | -Of course, physics and the other sciences study some very universal aspects of things; but it does so experimentally. Philosophy studies those aspects that can be studied without experimentation. Those are aspects of things that are very general indeed; to take yet another example, philosophers ask what physical objects as such are, as distinguished from properties of objects and relations between objects, and perhaps also as distinguished from minds or souls. Physicists proceed as though the notion of a physical body is quite clear and straightforward--which perhaps in the end it will found to be--but at any rate, physics <i>assumes</i> that, and then asks questions about how all physical bodies behave, and then does experiments to find out the answers. |
| | 96 | +Of course, physics and the other sciences study some very universal aspects of things; but it does so experimentally. Philosophy studies those aspects that can be studied without experimentation. Those are aspects of things that are very general indeed; to take yet another example, philosophers ask what physical objects as such are, as distinguished from properties of objects and relations between objects, and perhaps also as distinguished from minds or souls. Physicists proceed as though the notion of a physical body is quite clear and straightforward--which perhaps in the end it will found to be--but at any rate, physics ''assumes'' that, and then asks questions about how all physical bodies behave, and then does experiments to find out the answers. |
| 97 | 97 | |
| 98 | 98 | ---- |
| 99 | 99 | |
| — | — | @@ -204,7 +204,3 @@ |
| 205 | 205 | * [http://plato.stanford.edu/ The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] |
| 206 | 206 | * [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/ The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] |
| 207 | 207 | |
| 208 | | - |
| 209 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Philosophy, please see [[Philosophy basic topics]]. |
| 210 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Mathematics.txt |
| — | — | @@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ |
| 40 | 40 | :[[Mechanics]] -- [[Numerical analysis]] -- [[Optimization (mathematics)|Optimization]] -- [[Probability and statistics]] |
| 41 | 41 | |
| 42 | 42 | :'''Famous Theorems and Conjectures''' |
| 43 | | -:[[Fermats Last Theorem|Fermat's last theorem]] -- [[Riemann hypothesis]] -- [[Continuum hypothesis]] -- [[Complexity classes P and NP|P=NP]] -- [[Goldbachs conjecture|Goldbach's conjecture]] -- [[Twin Prime Conjecture]] -- [[Goedel's incompleteness theorem|G&ouml;del's incompleteness theorems]] -- [[Poincare conjecture|Poincar&eacute; conjecture]] -- [[Cantor's diagonal argument]] -- [[Pythagorean Theorem|Pythagorean theorem]] -- [[Central limit theorem]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Calculus|Fundamental theorem of calculus]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra|Fundamental theorem of algebra]] -- [[Four color theorem]] -- [[Zorns lemma|Zorn's lemma]] -- [[The most remarkable formula in the world|"The most remarkable formula in the world"]] |
| | 43 | +:[[Fermats Last Theorem|Fermat's last theorem]] -- [[Riemann hypothesis]] -- [[Continuum hypothesis]] -- [[Complexity classes P and NP|P=NP]] -- [[Goldbachs conjecture|Goldbach's conjecture]] -- [[Twin Prime Conjecture]] -- [[Goedel's incompleteness theorem|Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] -- [[Poincare conjecture|Poincaré conjecture]] -- [[Cantor's diagonal argument]] -- [[Pythagorean Theorem|Pythagorean theorem]] -- [[Central limit theorem]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Calculus|Fundamental theorem of calculus]] -- [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra|Fundamental theorem of algebra]] -- [[Four color theorem]] -- [[Zorns lemma|Zorn's lemma]] -- [[The most remarkable formula in the world|"The most remarkable formula in the world"]] |
| 44 | 44 | |
| 45 | 45 | :'''Foundations and Methods''' |
| 46 | 46 | :[[Philosophy of mathematics]] -- [[Mathematical intuitionism]] -- [[Mathematical constructivism]] -- [[Foundations of mathematics]] -- [[Set theory]] -- [[Symbolic logic]] -- [[Model theory]] -- [[Category theory]] -- [[Theorem-proving]] |
| — | — | @@ -48,8 +48,6 @@ |
| 49 | 49 | |
| 50 | 50 | :[[History of mathematics]] -- [[Timeline of mathematics]] -- [[Mathematician|Mathematicians]] -- [[Fields Medal|Fields medal]] -- [[Millennium Prize Problems|Millennium Prize Problems (Clay Math Prize)]] -- [[International Mathematical Union]] -- [[Mathematics Competitions|Mathematics competitions]] |
| 51 | 51 | |
| 52 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Mathematics, please see [[Mathematics basic topics]]. |
| 53 | | - |
| 54 | 52 | ---- |
| 55 | 53 | '''Further Reading:''' |
| 56 | 54 | * Davis, Philip J.; Hersh, Reuben: ''The Mathematical Experience''. Birkh�user, Boston, Mass., 1980. A gentle introduction to the world of mathematics. |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/History.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[dk:Historie]][[de:Geschichte]][[eo:Historio]][[fr:Histoire]][[pl:Historia]][[pt:Hist�ria]][[nl:Geschiedenis]] |
| 3 | | -<b>History</b> is often used as a generic term for information about the past, e.g., as in "geologic history of the Earth". When used as a field of study, history refers to "human history", which is the recorded past of human societies. |
| | 3 | +'''History''' is often used as a generic term for information about the past, e.g., as in "geologic history of the Earth". When used as a field of study, history refers to human history, which is the recorded past of human societies. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | | -The term "history" comes from the Greek ''historia,'' "an account of one's inquiries," and shares that [[etymology]] with the English word '''story.''' |
| | 5 | +The term "history" comes from the Greek ''historia'', "an account of one's inquiries", and shares that [[etymology]] with the English word "story". |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | 7 | Historians use many types of sources, including written or printed records, interviews ([[oral history]]), and [[archaeology]]. Different approaches may be more common in some periods than others, and the study of history has its fads and fashions (see [[historiography]], the history of history). The events that occurred prior to human records are known as [[prehistory]]. |
| 8 | 8 | |
| — | — | @@ -81,10 +81,7 @@ |
| 82 | 82 | You may also want to see [[dubious historical resources]] and [[historical myths]] for a list of false beliefs and histories which were once or are now popular and widespread, but which are proven to be false or dubious. |
| 83 | 83 | |
| 84 | 84 | ---- |
| 85 | | -See also: [[Archaeology]], [[Historian]] |
| | 85 | +See also [[Archaeology]], [[Historian]]. |
| 86 | 86 | |
| 87 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in History, please see [[History basic topics]]. |
| 88 | | - |
| 89 | 87 | A guideline for contributions to Wikipedia in the field of history can be found at [[Wikipedia History standards]]. |
| 90 | 88 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Card_game.txt |
| — | — | @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ |
| | 2 | +The term '''card game''' refers to any [[game]] using [[playing card]]s, either traditional or specialized. |
| | 3 | + |
| | 4 | +Other games using cards include [[trading card game]]s and [[combination games]] with use cards in addition to other playing equipment. |
| | 5 | + |
| | 6 | +[[Trick-taking game]]s: |
| | 7 | +* [[500 Card Game|500]] |
| | 8 | +* [[9-5-2]] |
| | 9 | +* [[Bridge game|Bridge]] |
| | 10 | +* [[Euchre]] |
| | 11 | +* [[Hearts]] |
| | 12 | +* [[Napoleon]] |
| | 13 | +* [[Sheepshead]] |
| | 14 | +* [[Skat]] |
| | 15 | +* [[Spades]] |
| | 16 | +* [[Tarocchi]] |
| | 17 | +* [[Whist]] |
| | 18 | +* [[Pinochle]] |
| | 19 | +* [[Oh Hell]] |
| | 20 | +* [[Tarock]] (played with a Tarot deck) |
| | 21 | + |
| | 22 | +[[Matching game]]s: (also referred to as the Rummy family) |
| | 23 | +* [[Canasta]] |
| | 24 | +* [[Gin Rummy| Gin (Gin Rummy)]] |
| | 25 | +* [[500 Rum]] |
| | 26 | +* [[Go Fish]] |
| | 27 | + |
| | 28 | +[[Gambling]] games: |
| | 29 | +* [[Blackjack]] |
| | 30 | +* [[Boure|Bouré]] |
| | 31 | +* [[Panguingue]] |
| | 32 | +* [[Poker]] |
| | 33 | +* [[Red Dog]] |
| | 34 | +* [[3 card brag]] |
| | 35 | + |
| | 36 | +[[Solitaire]] or Patience games: |
| | 37 | +* [[Klondike solitaire|Klondike]] |
| | 38 | +* [[FreeCell]] |
| | 39 | +(see a guide to [[Solitaire/Terminology]]) |
| | 40 | + |
| | 41 | +Shedding games: (also referred to as the Stops family) |
| | 42 | +* [[Uno]] |
| | 43 | +* [[Macau]] |
| | 44 | +* [[Mao (game)|Mao]] |
| | 45 | +* [[Crazy Eights]] |
| | 46 | +* [[Fan Tan]] |
| | 47 | +* [[Michigan Rummy]] |
| | 48 | +* [[President (game)|President]] (Asshole; The Great Dalmuti) |
| | 49 | +* [[Old Maid]] |
| | 50 | +* [[Shichi Narabe]] |
| | 51 | +* [[Bullshit]] (aka Cheat / I Doubt It) |
| | 52 | + |
| | 53 | +Accumulating games: |
| | 54 | +* [[Spit]] |
| | 55 | +* [[War (card game)|War]] |
| | 56 | +* [[Egyptian Ratscrew]] |
| | 57 | +* [[Beggar-My-Neighbour]] |
| | 58 | + |
| | 59 | +Special decks: |
| | 60 | +* [[Grass card game|Grass]] |
| | 61 | +* [[Mille Bournes]] |
| | 62 | +* [[Set game]] |
| | 63 | +* [[Karuta]] |
| | 64 | + |
| | 65 | +See also: [[Board game]] |
| | 66 | + |
| | 67 | +== External links == |
| | 68 | + |
| | 69 | +*http://www.pagat.com has information about many different card games. |
| | 70 | +*[http://www.funagain.com Funagain Games] includes short profiles of many proprietary games |
| | 71 | + |
| Property changes on: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Card_game.txt |
| ___________________________________________________________________ |
| Added: svn:eol-style |
| 1 | 72 | + native |
| Added: svn:keywords |
| 2 | 73 | + Author Date Id Revision |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Handicraft.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,6 +1,6 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | '''Handicraft''', also known as '''craftwork''' or simply '''craft''', is a type of work where useful and decorative devices are made completely by hand or using only simple tools. Usually the term is applied to traditional means of making goods. The individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion, such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. Items made by [[mass production]] or machines are not handicrafts. |
| 3 | 3 | |
| 4 | | -Usually, what distinguishes the term '''handicraft''' from the frequently used category [[Arts and Crafts]] is a matter of intent: handicrafted items are intended to be used, worn, etcetera, having a purpose beyond simple decoration. Handicrafts are generally considered more traditional work, created as a necessary part of daily life, whilst "Arts and Crafts" implies more of a hobby pursuit and a demonstration/perfection of a creative technique. In practical terms, the categories have a great deal of overlap. |
| | 4 | +Usually, what distinguishes the term '''handicraft''' from the frequently used category [[Arts and Crafts]] is a matter of intent: handicrafted items are intended to be used, worn, etcetera, having a purpose beyond simple decoration. Handicrafts are generally considered more traditional work, created as a necessary part of daily life, whilst "Arts and Crafts" implies more of a hobby pursuit and a demonstration/perfection of a creative technique. In practical terms, the categories have a great deal of overlap. |
| 5 | 5 | |
| 6 | 6 | Handicrafts include: |
| 7 | 7 | * [[assemblage]] - collage in three dimensions |
| — | — | @@ -24,5 +24,5 @@ |
| 25 | 25 | ** [[chip carving]] |
| 26 | 26 | ** [[wood burning]] |
| 27 | 27 | |
| 28 | | -See also [[Arts and crafts]] |
| | 28 | +See also [[Arts and crafts]]. |
| 29 | 29 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Hobby.txt |
| — | — | @@ -0,0 +1,87 @@ |
| | 2 | +[[eo:Hobioj]][[nl:Hobby]] |
| | 3 | +A '''hobby''' is a spare-time pursuit (see [[recreation]]) practiced for interest and enjoyment rather than as paid work. Examples include collecting, making, tinkering, sports and adult education. Engaging in a hobby can lead to acquiring substantial skill, knowledge, and experience. |
| | 4 | +But personal fulfillment is the aim. |
| | 5 | + |
| | 6 | +What are hobbies for some people are professions for others: a computer game tester may enjoy cooking as a hobby, while a professional chef might enjoy playing (and helping to debug) computer games. Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun, not remuneration, is called an ''amateur'' (or ''hobbyist''), as distinct from ''[[profession|professional]].'' |
| | 7 | + |
| | 8 | +An important determinant of what is considered a hobby, as distinct from a profession, is probably how easy it is to make a living at the activity. Almost no one can make a living at [[stamp collecting]], but many people find it enjoyable; so it is commonly regarded as a hobby. |
| | 9 | + |
| | 10 | +While some hobbies strike most people as trivial and boring, the hobbyist has found something compelling and entertaining about them. Much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; in our own time, [[Linux]] began as a student's hobby. |
| | 11 | + |
| | 12 | +Pursuit of a hobby often has calming or helpful therapeutic side effects. |
| | 13 | + |
| | 14 | +Hobbies include: |
| | 15 | +* [[Amateur astronomy]] |
| | 16 | +* [[Amateur radio]] |
| | 17 | +* [[Animal]] |
| | 18 | +** [[Dog breeding]] |
| | 19 | +**Keeping [[pet]] animals |
| | 20 | + |
| | 21 | +* [[Arts and Crafts]] |
| | 22 | +** Drawing |
| | 23 | +** Sculpture |
| | 24 | +** Painting |
| | 25 | + |
| | 26 | +* [[Automotive]] |
| | 27 | +** [Antique] |
| | 28 | +** [Trucks] |
| | 29 | +** [Motorcycles] |
| | 30 | + |
| | 31 | +* [[Collecting]] (stamps, books, postcards, antique automobiles etc.) |
| | 32 | + |
| | 33 | +* [[Computer programming]] |
| | 34 | +** [[Linux]] |
| | 35 | +** [[Open source]] |
| | 36 | +** [[Free software movement]] |
| | 37 | + |
| | 38 | +* [[Cooking]] |
| | 39 | +* [[Electronics]] |
| | 40 | +** [[amateur radio]] |
| | 41 | + |
| | 42 | +* [[DIY]] |
| | 43 | + |
| | 44 | +* [[Game]]s |
| | 45 | +** [[Miniature wargaming]] |
| | 46 | +** [[Wargaming]] |
| | 47 | +** [[Role-playing game]]s |
| | 48 | +** [[Jigsaw puzzle]] |
| | 49 | +** [[Crossword puzzle]]s |
| | 50 | +** [[Chess]] |
| | 51 | + |
| | 52 | +* [[Gardening]] |
| | 53 | +* [[Genealogy]] |
| | 54 | +* [[Historical reenactment]] |
| | 55 | + |
| | 56 | +*[[Literature]] |
| | 57 | +**Reading |
| | 58 | +**Writing |
| | 59 | +**Learning foreign languages |
| | 60 | + |
| | 61 | +* Machining |
| | 62 | + |
| | 63 | +* [[Model-building]] |
| | 64 | +** [[Model airplane]]s |
| | 65 | +** [[Model car]]s |
| | 66 | +** [[Model house]]s |
| | 67 | +** [[Model ship]]s |
| | 68 | +** [[Model railway]]s |
| | 69 | +** [[Model rocket]]s |
| | 70 | +** [[Flying Kites]] |
| | 71 | + |
| | 72 | +* [[Music-making]] |
| | 73 | +** [[Musical composition]] |
| | 74 | +** [[MIDI compostion]] |
| | 75 | + |
| | 76 | +* [[Observation]] |
| | 77 | +** [[Aircraft spotting]] |
| | 78 | +** [[Bird watching]] |
| | 79 | +** [[Butterfly watching]] |
| | 80 | +** [[Trainspotting]] |
| | 81 | +* [[Sport]]s |
| | 82 | + |
| | 83 | +* [[Restoration of highly entropic artifacts]] |
| | 84 | +* [[Wikipedian Participation]] |
| | 85 | +* [[Walking]] |
| | 86 | + |
| | 87 | +'''Please add to this list''' |
| | 88 | + |
| Property changes on: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Hobby.txt |
| ___________________________________________________________________ |
| Added: svn:eol-style |
| 1 | 89 | + native |
| Added: svn:keywords |
| 2 | 90 | + Author Date Id Revision |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Biology.txt |
| — | — | @@ -18,23 +18,24 @@ |
| 19 | 19 | |
| 20 | 20 | :[[Archaea]] -- [[Eubacteria]] -- [[Eukaryota]] |
| 21 | 21 | |
| 22 | | -The distinction between life and non-life is difficult, there is also a series of intracellular "[[parasites]]" that are progressively less alive in terms of being [[metabolism|metabolically]] active: |
| | 22 | +The distinction between life and non-life is difficult, there is also a series of intracellular "[[parasites]]" that are progressively less alive in terms of being [[metabolism|metabolically]] active: |
| 23 | 23 | |
| 24 | 24 | :[[virus (biology)|viruses]] -- [[Viroid]]s -- [[Prion]]s |
| 25 | 25 | |
| 26 | | -'''Major Branches of Biology''' |
| | 26 | +== Major Branches of Biology == |
| | 27 | + |
| 27 | 28 | :[[Aerobiology]] -- [[Anatomy]] -- [[Anthropology]] -- [[Astrobiology]] -- [[Biochemistry]] -- [[Bionics]] -- [[Biogeography]] -- [[Biophysics]]-- [[Biotechnology]] -- [[Botany]] -- [[Cell biology]] -- [[Chorology]] -- [[Cladistics]] -- [[Cytology]] -- [[Developmental biology]] -- [[Ecology]] ([[Symbiology]], [[Autecology]])-- [[Ethology]] -- [[Evolution]] (Evolutionary biology) --[[Evo-devo]] (Evolution of Development)-- [[Genetics]] ([[Genomics]], [[Proteomics]]) -- [[Histology]] -- [[Immunology]] -- [[Infectious disease]] ([[Pathology]], [[Epidemiology]])-- [[Limnology]] -- [[Marine biology]] -- [[Microbiology]] ([[Bacteriology]]) -- [[Molecular Biology]] -- [[Mycology]] / [[Lichenology]] -- [[Neuroscience]] -- [[Oncology]] (the study of cancer) -- [[Ontogeny]] -- [[Paleontology]] ([[Palaeobotany]], [[Palaezoology]])-- [[Phycology]] (Algology) -- [[Phylogeny]] ([[Phylogenetics]], [[Phylogeography]]) -- [[Physiology]] -- [[Phytopathology]] -- [[Structural biology]] -- [[Taxonomy]] -- [[Toxicology]] (the study of poisons and [[pollution]]) -- [[Virology]] -- [[Zoology]]; related: [[medicine]] |
| 28 | 29 | |
| 29 | | -'''People and History''' |
| | 30 | +== People and History == |
| | 31 | + |
| 30 | 32 | :[[List_of_biologists|Famous biologists]] -- [[History of biology]] -- [[Nobel_Prize/Physiology_or_medicine|Nobel prize in physiology or medicine]] -- [[Timeline of biology and organic chemistry]] |
| 31 | 33 | |
| 32 | | - |
| 33 | 34 | What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Biology, please see [[Biology basic topics]]. |
| 34 | 35 | |
| 35 | | -'''Resources:''' |
| | 36 | +== Resources == |
| | 37 | + |
| 36 | 38 | * David R. Maddison: ''The Tree of Life'', http://phylogeny.arizona.edu/. A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity. |
| 37 | | -* Lynn Margulis: ''Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, 3rd ed.'', W H Freeman &amp; Co 1998. |
| | 39 | +* Lynn Margulis: ''Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, 3rd ed.'', W H Freeman & Co 1998. |
| 38 | 40 | * Neil Campbell: ''Biology: Concepts and Connections, 3rd ed.'', Benjamin/Cummings 2000. A college-level textbook. |
| 39 | 41 | * John W. Kimball: ''Kimball's Biology Pages'', http://www.ultranet.com/~jkimball/BiologyPages/. A searchable online textbook. |
| 40 | 42 | * Charles Darwin: ''The Origin of Species'' |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Communication.txt |
| — | — | @@ -2,8 +2,8 @@ |
| 3 | 3 | ---- |
| 4 | 4 | We can treat ''Communication'' like a language and a subject unto itself, or as the name of a field of study. |
| 5 | 5 | |
| 6 | | -"Communication" implies two different, and sometimes conflicting, things. |
| 7 | | -On one hand, it means to have a thoughtful exchange of views with a small number of people, perhaps just one. But it can also mean to disseminate broadly a simple message, without deep thought or appeals for feedback. The Latin root is "communicare" and means "to make common." |
| | 6 | +"Communication" implies two different, and sometimes conflicting, things. |
| | 7 | +On one hand, it means to have a thoughtful exchange of views with a small number of people, perhaps just one. But it can also mean to disseminate broadly a simple message, without deep thought or appeals for feedback. The Latin root is ''communicare'' and means "to make common". |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | 9 | ''Communication'' as a field of study is relatively new. Arguably, it encompasses [[journalism]], [[public relations]], [[media studies]] (which might include the study of [[television]], [[radio]], and [[film]]), and [[rhetoric]], among other fields. |
| 10 | 10 | |
| — | — | @@ -34,9 +34,4 @@ |
| 35 | 35 | === The Study of Communication === |
| 36 | 36 | *historical sketch |
| 37 | 37 | *important people, theories |
| 38 | | -<b>What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Communication, please see [[Communication basic topics]].</b> |
| 39 | 38 | |
| 40 | | - |
| 41 | | - |
| 42 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Visual_arts_and_design.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ |
| 2 | | -Traditional visual arts (commonly called "fine arts"): |
| | 2 | +Traditional visual arts (commonly called "fine arts"): |
| 3 | 3 | :[[Painting]] |
| 4 | 4 | :[[Ceramics]] |
| 5 | 5 | :[[Sculpture]] |
| — | — | @@ -55,6 +55,3 @@ |
| 56 | 56 | New Materials |
| 57 | 57 | :[[Plastics in art]] |
| 58 | 58 | :[[Body fluids in art]] |
| 59 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Visual Arts and Design, please see [[Visual Arts and Design basic topics]]. |
| 60 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Family_and_consumer_science.txt |
| — | — | @@ -4,7 +4,3 @@ |
| 5 | 5 | |
| 6 | 6 | Most of the best, most highly skilled [[housewife|homemakers]] never studied "family and consumer science" or even knew it by that name. Some have developed their skills at a [[finishing school]]. |
| 7 | 7 | |
| 8 | | - |
| 9 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Family and Consumer Science, please see [[Family and Consumer Science basic topics]]. |
| 10 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Sociology.txt |
| — | — | @@ -15,6 +15,3 @@ |
| 16 | 16 | Influences on sociology: [[Karl Marx]], [[Henry Maine]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Ferdinand Saussure]], [[Claude Levi-Strauss]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Theodor Adorno]], [[Max Horkheimer]], [[Jurgen Habermas]] |
| 17 | 17 | |
| 18 | 18 | Branches of sociology: [[Sociology of Religion]], [[Industrial Sociology]] [[Mass Media]] [[Revolution]] [[Social Movements]] [[Social Change]] [[Environmental Sociology]] [[Economic Sociology]] [[Political Sociology]] [[Gender & Sexuality]] [[Education]] [[Theory]] [[Culture]] [[Deviance]] [[Comparative Historical]] [[Race & Ethnicity]] [[Work]] |
| 19 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Sociology, please see [[Sociology basic topics]]. |
| 20 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Sport.txt |
| — | — | @@ -0,0 +1,272 @@ |
| | 2 | +[[ca:Esports]][[de:Sport]][[eo:Sporto]][[fr:Sport]][[nl:Sport]][[pl:Sport]] |
| | 3 | + |
| | 4 | +Defining '''sport''' is difficult; the term constantly evolves to cover new ranges of human behavior. Indeed, the well-known philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argues that sports are defined, not by a set of common characteristics, but by new activities sharing some common aspects with existing sports, but not necessarily sharing any common characteristics with all. Credence to this comment may be taken from the ever-more-diverse set of activities that are at least claimed by some as sports - from [[chess]] to [[cheerleading]], from [[sheepdog trials]] to [[ballroom dancing]]. What do all of those activities have in common? |
| | 5 | + |
| | 6 | +However, many of the above would not be recognised as sports by fans of more traditionally-recognised sports, and using Wittgenstein's "extension" approach it would be quite reasonable to claim a "battle of the bands" competition as a sporting event and thus playing [[rock and roll]] as a sport, a definition which makes "sport" so broad as to be potentially useless and quite different to the common understanding, fuzzy though that may be. |
| | 7 | + |
| | 8 | +A more pragmatic approach to defining sport may be to look at common usage of the term. It was originally used to describe the animal and bird-killing activities (such as shooting, fishing and [[fox hunting]]) of the English aristocracy, whereas the precursors of modern team sports played by the lower classes were termed "games". However, as time progressed, perhaps with the beginnings of the modern Olympic movement in the late 19th century, "sport" began to be used to describe a wide range of athletic pursuits. However, sport retained, and still retains an implication of respectability and seriousness that a mere "game" or "hobby" does not, and organisations responsible for leisure activities continually seek recognition as sports by joining sports federations such as the [[IOC]]. These bodies are seemingly fairly inclusive as to what they are prepared to accept as sports, and thus the activities listed above, amongst others, have been accepted. |
| | 9 | + |
| | 10 | +However, it is possible to make a reasonable operational definition of sport using characteristics most sports do have in common. Such an operational definition can be found below: |
| | 11 | + |
| | 12 | +* Sports are activities based around physical activity, involving use of characteristics such as strength, stamina, speed, and dexterity. |
| | 13 | +* A sport has codified rules known to all players. These vary somewhat depending on the location, timing, and specific event (for instances, [[golf]] courses have specific local bylaws, and each tournament may have its own special conditions), but there are a core of relatively invariant, agreed rules. |
| | 14 | +* A sport involves a competitive aspect, either explicitly by competing against other participants, or by means of an ordinal (usually numeric) scoring system. There are organised competitions for the sport, rather than purely ad-hoc, casual competitions. |
| | 15 | +* Sport is performed primarily for the enjoyment of either or both of the participants and/or any audience watching. |
| | 16 | +* The primary goal of competition is to win according to the rules of the competition, rather than as a subsidiary to esthetic, artistic, or financial achievements in the performance of the sport (thus excluding the "battle of the bands" or a sheep-shearing competition). |
| | 17 | +* Sport is unscripted and the results of competitions not prearranged. Sports such as [[gymnastics]] involve set routines, but the scoring of those routines is judged entirely on the performance of that day. |
| | 18 | + |
| | 19 | +[[Sport/What is a sport|What is a sport]] |
| | 20 | + |
| | 21 | +[[History of Sport]] |
| | 22 | + |
| | 23 | +* Paleontological evidence for prehistoric sports (is there any)? |
| | 24 | +* The sports of ancient civilizations: |
| | 25 | +** Egyptian |
| | 26 | +** Greek (Olympics, etc.) |
| | 27 | +** Mayan |
| | 28 | +** Australian Aboriginal (Aussie rules believed to be derived from Aboriginal game) |
| | 29 | +** Roman |
| | 30 | +** Chinese |
| | 31 | +** Any others? |
| | 32 | +* Medieval sports - the aristocracy and the plebs |
| | 33 | +* The great rule codification of the 19th century and the rise of spectator sports |
| | 34 | +* 20th century and the electronic media and the growth of professional sport |
| | 35 | +* The recent rise in "extreme"/adventure sports, growth of divergent participant and spectator sports. |
| | 36 | + |
| | 37 | +Feel free to fill these in, or add more dot points, or reorganise totally. |
| | 38 | + |
| | 39 | +=== Aspects of Sport === |
| | 40 | + |
| | 41 | +* [[Sports/Events]] |
| | 42 | +* [[Sport/Governing bodies]] |
| | 43 | +* [[Sporting venues]] |
| | 44 | +* [[sponsorship]] |
| | 45 | +* [[sports equipment]] |
| | 46 | +* [[sports injuries]] |
| | 47 | +* [[sports marketing]] |
| | 48 | +* [[spectator sport]] |
| | 49 | +* [[multi-sport events]] |
| | 50 | +* [[sports art]] |
| | 51 | +* [[sport in film]] |
| | 52 | +* [[sporting club]] |
| | 53 | +* [[Disabled sports]] |
| | 54 | +* [[Sports history organizations]] |
| | 55 | +* [[Fantasy sports]] |
| | 56 | + |
| | 57 | +=== Sports === |
| | 58 | + |
| | 59 | +An attempt to list the most important sports, divided by category. (Many more sports to be added). Note that some sports may fit in more than one category, but are only listed in one. |
| | 60 | + |
| | 61 | +==== Athletics ==== |
| | 62 | +Track and field [[athletics]]. |
| | 63 | +* [[Jumping]] |
| | 64 | +** [[Triple jump]] |
| | 65 | +** [[Long jump]] |
| | 66 | +** [[High jump]] |
| | 67 | +* [[Running]] |
| | 68 | +* [[Throwing]] |
| | 69 | +** [[Discus]] |
| | 70 | +** [[Hammer throw]] |
| | 71 | +** [[Javelin]] |
| | 72 | +** [[shotput]] |
| | 73 | +* [[Walking]] |
| | 74 | + |
| | 75 | +==== Animal Sports ==== |
| | 76 | +Sports in which animals play a role. |
| | 77 | +* [[Camel racing]] |
| | 78 | +* [[Equestrianism]] |
| | 79 | +* [[Greyhound racing]] |
| | 80 | +* [[Pigeon sport]] |
| | 81 | + |
| | 82 | +==== Combat Sports ==== |
| | 83 | +Sport in which the athletes fight each other. |
| | 84 | +* [[Aikido]] |
| | 85 | +* [[Boxing]] |
| | 86 | +* [[Fencing]] |
| | 87 | +* [[Judo]] |
| | 88 | +* [[Ju-jitsu]] |
| | 89 | +* [[Karate]] |
| | 90 | +* [[Sambo]] |
| | 91 | +* [[Sumo]] |
| | 92 | +* [[Taekwondo]] |
| | 93 | +* [[Wrestling]] |
| | 94 | +* [[Wushu]] |
| | 95 | + |
| | 96 | +==== Cycling ==== |
| | 97 | +Sports using [[bicycle]]s. |
| | 98 | +* [[BMX]] |
| | 99 | +* [[Cycloball]] |
| | 100 | +* [[Cyclocross]] |
| | 101 | +* [[Mountain bicycling]] |
| | 102 | +* [[Road cycling]] |
| | 103 | +* [[Track cycling]] |
| | 104 | + |
| | 105 | +==== [[Extreme sports]] ==== |
| | 106 | +* [[Skateboarding]] |
| | 107 | +* [[Wakeboarding]] |
| | 108 | + |
| | 109 | +==== Gymnastics ==== |
| | 110 | +Gymnastic sports. |
| | 111 | +* [[Aerobics]] |
| | 112 | +* [[Acrobatics]] |
| | 113 | +* [[Artistic gymnastics]] |
| | 114 | +* [[Rhythmic gymnastics]] |
| | 115 | +* [[Trampolining]] |
| | 116 | + |
| | 117 | +==== Motorized Sports ==== |
| | 118 | +Sports based on motorized vehicles. |
| | 119 | +* [[Autosport]] |
| | 120 | +* [[Motorboat racing]] |
| | 121 | +* [[Motorcycle racing]] |
| | 122 | + |
| | 123 | +==== Other ==== |
| | 124 | +Sports not in any of the other categories. |
| | 125 | +* [[BASE jumping]] |
| | 126 | +* [[Bungee jumping]] |
| | 127 | +* [[Dance sport]] |
| | 128 | +* [[Disabled sports]] |
| | 129 | +* [[Foosball]] |
| | 130 | +* [[Modern pentathlon]] |
| | 131 | +* [[Triathlon]] |
| | 132 | + |
| | 133 | +==== Outdoor Sports ==== |
| | 134 | +Sports not based on a specific field. |
| | 135 | +* [[Aerobatics]] |
| | 136 | +* [[Aeromodelling]] |
| | 137 | +* [[Ballooning]] |
| | 138 | +* [[Casting (sport)|Casting]] |
| | 139 | +* [[Flying disc]] |
| | 140 | +* [[Gliding]] |
| | 141 | +* [[Hang gliding]] |
| | 142 | +* [[Mountaineering]] |
| | 143 | +* [[Orienteering]] |
| | 144 | +* [[Parachuting]] |
| | 145 | +* [[Paragliding]] |
| | 146 | +* [[Skydiving]] |
| | 147 | +* [[Sled-dog sports]] |
| | 148 | +* [[Sport fishing]] |
| | 149 | + |
| | 150 | +==== Power Sports ==== |
| | 151 | +Sports mainly based on sheer power. |
| | 152 | +* [[Bodybuilding]] |
| | 153 | +* [[Powerlifting]] |
| | 154 | +* [[Tug of war]] |
| | 155 | +* [[Weightlifting]] |
| | 156 | + |
| | 157 | +==== Racket Sports ==== |
| | 158 | +Sports where players use rackets to hit a ball or other object. |
| | 159 | +* [[Badminton]] |
| | 160 | +* [[Racquetball]] |
| | 161 | +* [[Royal tennis]] |
| | 162 | +* [[Soft tennis]] |
| | 163 | +* [[Squash]] |
| | 164 | +* [[Table tennis]] |
| | 165 | +* [[Tennis]] |
| | 166 | + |
| | 167 | +==== Skating ==== |
| | 168 | +Sports in which skates are used. |
| | 169 | +* [[Figure skating]] |
| | 170 | +* [[Roller hockey]] |
| | 171 | +* [[Roller skating]] |
| | 172 | +* [[Short-track speed skating]] |
| | 173 | +* [[Speed skating]] |
| | 174 | +* [[Synchronized skating]] |
| | 175 | + |
| | 176 | +==== Skiing ==== |
| | 177 | +Sports in which [[Ski|skis]] or [[Snowboard|snowboards]] are used. |
| | 178 | +* [[Alpine skiing]] |
| | 179 | +* [[Back-country skiing]] |
| | 180 | +* [[Biathlon]] |
| | 181 | +* [[Cross country skiing]] |
| | 182 | +* [[Firngleiten]] |
| | 183 | +* [[Freestyle skiing]] |
| | 184 | +* [[Grass skiing]] |
| | 185 | +* [[Nordic combined]] |
| | 186 | +* [[Roller skiing]] |
| | 187 | +* [[Skibob]] |
| | 188 | +* [[Skijoring]] |
| | 189 | +* [[Ski jumping]] |
| | 190 | +* [[Ski touring]] |
| | 191 | +* [[Snowboarding]] |
| | 192 | +* [[Speed skiing]] |
| | 193 | +* [[Telemark skiing]] |
| | 194 | + |
| | 195 | +==== Sleighing ==== |
| | 196 | +Sports that use sleighs. |
| | 197 | +* [[Bobsleigh]] |
| | 198 | +* [[Land luge]] |
| | 199 | +* [[Luge]] |
| | 200 | +* [[Skeleton]] |
| | 201 | + |
| | 202 | +==== Target Sports ==== |
| | 203 | +Sports where the main objective is to hit a certain target. |
| | 204 | +* [[Archery]] |
| | 205 | +* [[Billiards]] |
| | 206 | +* [[Bocce]] |
| | 207 | +* [[Bowling]] |
| | 208 | +* [[Croquet]] |
| | 209 | +* [[Curling]] |
| | 210 | +* [[Darts]] |
| | 211 | +* [[Golf]] |
| | 212 | +* [[Disc golf]] |
| | 213 | +* [[Horseshoe throwing]] |
| | 214 | +* [[Petanque]] |
| | 215 | +* [[Shooting]] |
| | 216 | + |
| | 217 | +==== Team Sports ==== |
| | 218 | +Sports that involve teams. |
| | 219 | +* [[American football]] |
| | 220 | +* [[Australian rules football]] |
| | 221 | +* [[Bandy]] |
| | 222 | +* [[Baseball]] |
| | 223 | +* [[Basketball]] |
| | 224 | +* [[Basque pelota]] |
| | 225 | +* [[Cricket]] |
| | 226 | +* [[Curling]] |
| | 227 | +* [[Faustball]] |
| | 228 | +* [[Floorball]] |
| | 229 | +* [[Football]] |
| | 230 | +* [[Gaelic football]] |
| | 231 | +* [[Handball]] |
| | 232 | +* [[Hockey]] |
| | 233 | +* [[Hurling]] |
| | 234 | +* [[Ice hockey]] |
| | 235 | +* [[Kabaddi]] |
| | 236 | +* [[Korfball]] |
| | 237 | +* [[Lacrosse]] |
| | 238 | +* [[Netball]] |
| | 239 | +* [[Petanque]] |
| | 240 | +* [[Polo]] |
| | 241 | +* [[Roller Hockey]] |
| | 242 | +* [[Rugby]] |
| | 243 | +* [[Sepak Takraw]] |
| | 244 | +* [[Softball]] |
| | 245 | +* [[Volleyball]] |
| | 246 | +* [[Ultimate]] ([[frisbee]]) |
| | 247 | + |
| | 248 | +==== [[Mind sport|Mind Sports]] ==== |
| | 249 | +Sports that involve no physical abilities, only mental. |
| | 250 | +* [[Bridge game|Bridge]] |
| | 251 | +* [[Chess]] |
| | 252 | +* [[Poker]] |
| | 253 | +* [[Go (board game)|Go]] |
| | 254 | +* [[Scrabble]] |
| | 255 | +* [[Shogi]] |
| | 256 | + |
| | 257 | +==== Water Sports ==== |
| | 258 | +Sports that happen in or on the water. |
| | 259 | +* [[Canoeing]] |
| | 260 | +* [[Diving]] |
| | 261 | +* [[Dragon Boat]] |
| | 262 | +* [[Offshore Powerboat racing]] |
| | 263 | +* [[Surf lifesaving]] |
| | 264 | +* [[Rowing]] |
| | 265 | +* [[Subaquatics]] |
| | 266 | +* [[Surfing]] |
| | 267 | +* [[Swimming]] |
| | 268 | +* [[Synchronized swimming]] |
| | 269 | +* [[Wakeboarding]] |
| | 270 | +* [[Water polo]] |
| | 271 | +* [[Water skiing]] |
| | 272 | +* [[Yachting]] |
| | 273 | + |
| Property changes on: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Sport.txt |
| ___________________________________________________________________ |
| Added: svn:eol-style |
| 1 | 274 | + native |
| Added: svn:keywords |
| 2 | 275 | + Author Date Id Revision |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Painting.txt |
| — | — | @@ -39,8 +39,6 @@ |
| 40 | 40 | |
| 41 | 41 | A proposed and yet-unrealised development in painting is [[four dimensional painting]]. |
| 42 | 42 | ---- |
| 43 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics about painting, please see [[Painting basic topics]]. |
| 44 | 43 | External links to art-related sites (sources of information for writing Wikipedia articles): |
| 45 | 44 | :http://www.metmuseum.org/ |
| 46 | 45 | :http://www.moma.org/docs/menu/index.htm |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Political_science.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ |
| 2 | | -<b>Political science</b> is the formal academic study of [[politics]]. It involves the study of structure and process in [[government]] - or any equivalent system that assures safety, fairness, and closure across a broad range of risks and access to a broad range of commons for its human charges. Accordingly, political scientists often study trade unions, corporations, churches or other forms of [[collective intelligence]] that are not "political" in the sense of influencing law or executive decisions - but have structure and process approaching that of government in complexity and interconnection. |
| | 2 | +'''Political science''' is the formal academic study of [[politics]]. It involves the study of structure and process in [[government]] - or any equivalent system that assures safety, fairness, and closure across a broad range of risks and access to a broad range of commons for its human charges. Accordingly, political scientists often study trade unions, corporations, churches or other forms of [[collective intelligence]] that are not "political" in the sense of influencing law or executive decisions - but have structure and process approaching that of government in complexity and interconnection. |
| 3 | 3 | |
| 4 | 4 | Political scientists also study the allocation and transfer of power in decision making. Because of the complex interaction of often conflicting interests, political science is often an applied instance of [[game theory]]. |
| 5 | 5 | |
| — | — | @@ -96,6 +96,3 @@ |
| 97 | 97 | ** [[collective intelligence]] |
| 98 | 98 | ** [[anti-globalization movement]] |
| 99 | 99 | |
| 100 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in political science, please see [[political science basic topics]]. |
| 101 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Dance.txt |
| — | — | @@ -15,6 +15,3 @@ |
| 16 | 16 | |
| 17 | 17 | See also: [[Dance music]] |
| 18 | 18 | |
| 19 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Dance, please see [[Dance basic topics]]. |
| 20 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Technology.txt |
| — | — | @@ -115,7 +115,6 @@ |
| 116 | 116 | *** [[Eductor-jet pump]] |
| 117 | 117 | *** [[Tuyau]] |
| 118 | 118 | |
| 119 | | - |
| 120 | 119 | * [[Nanotechnology]] |
| 121 | 120 | * [[nuclear reactor|Nuclear reactor]] |
| 122 | 121 | |
| — | — | @@ -173,6 +172,3 @@ |
| 174 | 173 | * [[Emergent Philosophies]] |
| 175 | 174 | * [[Transhumanism]] |
| 176 | 175 | * [[Posthumanism]] |
| 177 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in technology, please see [[Technology basic topics]]. |
| 178 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Education.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,28 +1,28 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[nl:Onderwijs]] |
| 3 | 3 | '''Education''' is a term which encompasses the teaching of specific [[skill]]s, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of [[knowledge]], good [[judgement]] and [[wisdom]]. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | | -Education begins the minute a baby is born and is life-long. For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily life are far more instructive than formal schooling (Thus Mark Twain: "I never let school interfere with my education.") [[Family]] members have an educational effect which is quite profound -- often more profound than they realize -- though family teaching techniques may be highly informal. |
| | 5 | +Education begins the minute a baby is born and is life-long. For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily life are far more instructive than formal schooling (Thus Mark Twain: "I never let school interfere with my education.") [[Family]] members have an educational effect which is quite profound -- often more profound than they realize -- though family teaching techniques may be highly informal. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | 7 | Formal education occurs when society makes a commitment to educate people, usually the young. Formal education has the advantage of being fairly systematic and thorough; but critics have always noted that whoever sponsors formal education, be it a church, the state or some other group, that group will almost always seek to shape its impressionable scholars in that image. |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | 9 | In recent years, life-long education has become far more widespread, and many adults have given up their notion that only children belong in school. However - the recent years of technology developments with portable computing devices may change some of the classical places where we do learn - OR where we find knowledge. In some places the learning can happen in real time as we need the knowledge itself. This is the computer based / networked learning stucture, where people contribute to each other's education. |
| 10 | 10 | |
| 11 | | -:<b>Categories</b> |
| | 11 | +:Categories |
| 12 | 12 | :[[Classical Education]] -- [[Reading]] -- [[Education/Math|Math]] -- [[Language education|Language]] -- [[Science education|Science]] -- [[Ethics]] -- [[Physical education]] -- [[Religious education]] |
| 13 | 13 | |
| 14 | | -:<b>Formal education</b> |
| | 14 | +:Formal education |
| 15 | 15 | :[[Elementary education]] -- [[Secondary education]] -- [[Vocational education]] -- [[College education]] -- [[Graduate education]] -- [[Colleges and universities]] -- [[School choice]] |
| 16 | 16 | |
| 17 | | -:<b>Educational policy</b> |
| | 17 | +:Educational policy |
| 18 | 18 | :[[Literacy]] -- [[Standardized testing]] -- [[Education reform]] -- [[School choice]] |
| 19 | 19 | |
| 20 | | -:<b>Informal education</b> |
| | 20 | +:Informal education |
| 21 | 21 | :[[Early instruction]] -- [[Home schooling]] |
| 22 | 22 | |
| 23 | | -:<b>Theory and Methodology</b> |
| | 23 | +:Theory and Methodology |
| 24 | 24 | :[[Philosophy of education]]--[[Teaching method]] -- [[Instructional theory]]-- [[Learning theory]] -- [[Learning disability]] -- [[Instructional technology]] |
| 25 | 25 | |
| 26 | | -:<b>Biographies</b> |
| | 26 | +:Biographies |
| 27 | 27 | :[[F. Matthias Alexander]] |
| 28 | 28 | :[[John Dewey]] |
| 29 | 29 | :[[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] |
| — | — | @@ -32,5 +32,3 @@ |
| 33 | 33 | :[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] |
| 34 | 34 | :[[B.F. Skinner]] |
| 35 | 35 | |
| 36 | | -<b>What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Education, please see [[Education basic topics]].</b> |
| 37 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Business_and_industry.txt |
| — | — | @@ -22,8 +22,6 @@ |
| 23 | 23 | * [[Finance and investment]] |
| 24 | 24 | * [[Fundamental business concepts]] |
| 25 | 25 | |
| 26 | | - |
| 27 | | - |
| 28 | 26 | * [[Home economics]] |
| 29 | 27 | * [[Finishing school|Home economics education]] |
| 30 | 28 | * [[History]] |
| — | — | @@ -50,15 +48,9 @@ |
| 51 | 49 | ** [[Real_Estate_Agencies|Agencies]] |
| 52 | 50 | * [[Retailer]] |
| 53 | 51 | |
| 54 | | - |
| 55 | 52 | * [[tax|Taxation]] |
| 56 | 53 | * [[Trade]] |
| 57 | 54 | |
| 58 | 55 | * [[Wholesaler]] |
| 59 | 56 | |
| 60 | | - |
| 61 | | - |
| 62 | 57 | See also: [[economics]] |
| 63 | | -<b>What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Business and Industry, please see [[Business and Industry basic topics]].</b> |
| 64 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Literature.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[de:Literatur]][[eo:Literaturo]][[fr:Litt�rature]][[nl:Literatuur]][[pl:Literatura]][[pt:Literatura]][[es:literatura]] |
| 3 | | -'''Literature''' is literally "an acquaintance with letters" (as in the first sense given in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]), but has generally come to identify a collection of [[text]]s. Nations can have literatures, as can corporations, philosophical schools or historical periods. It is commonly held that a literature of a nation, for example, is the collection of texts which make it a whole nation. The [[Hebrew]] [[Bible]], [[Beowulf]], the [[Iliad]] and the [[Odyssey]] and the [[American]] [[Constitution]] all fall within this definition of a kind of literature. More generally, a literature is equated with a collection of stories, poems and plays that revolve around a particular topic. In this case, the stories, poems and plays may or may not have nationalistic implications. The [[Western Canon]] is one such literature. |
| | 3 | +'''Literature''' is literally "an acquaintance with letters" (as in the first sense given in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]), but has generally come to identify a collection of [[text]]s. Nations can have literatures, as can corporations, philosophical schools or historical periods. It is commonly held that a literature of a nation, for example, is the collection of texts which make it a whole nation. The [[Hebrew]] [[Bible]], [[Beowulf]], the [[Iliad]] and the [[Odyssey]] and the [[American]] [[Constitution]] all fall within this definition of a kind of literature. More generally, a literature is equated with a collection of stories, poems and plays that revolve around a particular topic. In this case, the stories, poems and plays may or may not have nationalistic implications. The [[Western Canon]] is one such literature. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | | -Classifying a specific item as being part of a literature (be it [[American literature]], advertising literature, [[gay and lesbian literature]] or [[Roman literature]]) is very difficult. To some people, "literature" can be broadly applied to any symbolic record which can include images, [[sculpture]]s, as well as letters. To others, a literature must only include examples of text composed of letters, or other narrowly defined examples of symbolic written language ([[hieroglyph]]s, for example). Even more conservative interpreters of the concept would demand that the text have a physical form, usually on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of inscriptions or digital media. |
| | 5 | +Classifying a specific item as being part of a literature (be it [[American literature]], advertising literature, [[gay and lesbian literature]] or [[Roman literature]]) is very difficult. To some people, "literature" can be broadly applied to any symbolic record which can include images, [[sculpture]]s, as well as letters. To others, a literature must only include examples of text composed of letters, or other narrowly defined examples of symbolic written language ([[hieroglyph]]s, for example). Even more conservative interpreters of the concept would demand that the text have a physical form, usually on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of inscriptions or digital media. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | 7 | Frequently, these boundaries are crossed by the texts that make up literature. Illustrated stories, [[hypertext]]s, cave paintings and inscribed monuments have all at one time or another pressed the boundaries of what is and is not literature. |
| 8 | 8 | |
| — | — | @@ -65,6 +65,4 @@ |
| 66 | 66 | |
| 67 | 67 | See also: |
| 68 | 68 | *[http://www.HavenWorks.com/books Free Books & Book Reviews Online:] http://www.HavenWorks.com/books |
| 69 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Literature, please see [[Literature basic topics]]. |
| 70 | 69 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Architecture.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,22 +1,21 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[nl:Architectuur]][[fr:Architecture]] |
| 3 | | -<b>Architecture</b> is the [[art]] or [[science]] of [[design |designing]] the built environment; including cities, buildings, interiors, landscape, furniture, objects, etc. According to the earliest surviving work on the subject, [[Vitruvius | Vitruvius']] "On Architecture", it is said to rest on three principles: Beauty (''Venustas''), Firmness (''Firmitas'') and Utility (''Utilitas''); architecture can be said to be a balance between these three elements, with no one overpowering the others. |
| | 3 | +'''Architecture''' is the [[art]] or [[science]] of [[design |designing]] the built environment; including cities, buildings, interiors, landscape, furniture, objects, etc. According to the earliest surviving work on the subject, [[Vitruvius | Vitruvius']] "On Architecture", it is said to rest on three principles: Beauty (''Venustas''), Firmness (''Firmitas'') and Utility (''Utilitas''); architecture can be said to be a balance between these three elements, with no one overpowering the others. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | 5 | In [[Vitruvius | Vitruvius']] own words: |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | | -:"Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning; by the help of which a judgment is formed of those works which are the result of other arts. Practice and theory are its parents. Practice is the frequent and continued contemplation of the mode of executing any given work, or of the mere operation of the hands, for the conversion of the material in the best and readiest way. Theory is the result of that reasoning which demonstrates and explains that the material wrought has been so converted as to answer the end proposed. Wherefore the mere practical architect is not able to assign sufficient reasons for the forms he adopts; and the theoretic architect also fails, grasping the shadow instead of the substance. He who is theoretic as well as practical, is therefore doubly armed; able not only to prove the propriety of his design, but equally so to carry it into execution." |
| | 7 | +:"Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning; by the help of which a judgment is formed of those works which are the result of other arts. Practice and theory are its parents. Practice is the frequent and continued contemplation of the mode of executing any given work, or of the mere operation of the hands, for the conversion of the material in the best and readiest way. Theory is the result of that reasoning which demonstrates and explains that the material wrought has been so converted as to answer the end proposed. Wherefore the mere practical architect is not able to assign sufficient reasons for the forms he adopts; and the theoretic architect also fails, grasping the shadow instead of the substance. He who is theoretic as well as practical, is therefore doubly armed; able not only to prove the propriety of his design, but equally so to carry it into execution." |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | | -The word <b>architecture</b> is also used for the design or act of designing other complex systems. For example [[computer architecture]], [[software architecture]], [[information architecture]]. In this case, it tends to refer to the overall structure of the system. |
| | 9 | +The word ''architecture'' is also used for the design or act of designing other complex systems. For example [[computer architecture]], [[software architecture]], [[information architecture]]. In this case, it tends to refer to the overall structure of the system. |
| 10 | 10 | |
| 11 | 11 | Architecture in general spans a great many ideas and places, including the act of designing and building simple carpentry pieces for a home, to residential housing to large-scale projects such as hospitals, airports, cities, regions, etc. Because of the wide ranging nature of architecture there are many ways to look at it. A simple way would be to break it into segments that can be then cross-referenced. The list below moves from the individual to the holistic in approach. |
| 12 | 12 | |
| 13 | | -<h4>[[Architect |Architects]]<br> |
| 14 | | -[[Forms in Architecture]]<br> |
| 15 | | -[[Periods of Architecture]] |
| 16 | | -</h4> |
| | 13 | +=== [[Architect |Architects]] === |
| 17 | 14 | |
| 18 | | -<b>What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Architecture, please see [[Architecture basic topics]].</b> |
| | 15 | +=== [[Forms in Architecture]] === |
| 19 | 16 | |
| | 17 | +=== [[Periods of Architecture]] === |
| | 18 | + |
| 20 | 19 | External links: |
| 21 | | -* [http://www.ukans.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html Vitruvius' "Ten Books of Architecture" online] |
| | 20 | +* [http://www.ukans.edu/history/index/europe/ancient_rome/E/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html Vitruvius' "Ten Books of Architecture" online] |
| 22 | 21 | |
| 23 | 22 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Physics.txt |
| — | — | @@ -6,41 +6,41 @@ |
| 7 | 7 | Below is an overview of the major subfields and concepts in physics, followed by a brief outline of the history of physics and its subfields. |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | 9 | :'''Central Theories''' |
| 10 | | -:[[Classical Mechanics|Classical mechanics]]&nbsp;-- [[Thermodynamics]]&nbsp;-- [[Statistical Mechanics|Statistical mechanics]]&nbsp;-- [[Electromagnetism]]&nbsp;-- [[Special relativity]]&nbsp;-- [[General relativity]]&nbsp;-- [[Quantum mechanics]]&nbsp;-- [[Quantum field theory]] -- [[Standard Model]] |
| | 10 | +:[[Classical Mechanics|Classical mechanics]] -- [[Thermodynamics]] -- [[Statistical Mechanics|Statistical mechanics]] -- [[Electromagnetism]] -- [[Special relativity]] -- [[General relativity]] -- [[Quantum mechanics]] -- [[Quantum field theory]] -- [[Standard Model]] |
| 11 | 11 | |
| 12 | 12 | :'''Proposed Theories''' |
| 13 | | -:[[Theory of everything]]&nbsp;-- [[Grand unification theory|Grand unified theory]]&nbsp;-- [[M-theory]] -- [[emergent complexity]] -- [[Interpretation of quantum mechanics]] |
| | 13 | +:[[Theory of everything]] -- [[Grand unification theory|Grand unified theory]] -- [[M-theory]] -- [[emergent complexity]] -- [[Interpretation of quantum mechanics]] |
| 14 | 14 | |
| 15 | 15 | :'''Concepts''' |
| 16 | | -:[[Matter]]&nbsp;-- [[Antimatter]] -- [[Particle|Elementary particle]] -- [[Boson]] -- [[Fermion]] |
| | 16 | +:[[Matter]] -- [[Antimatter]] -- [[Particle|Elementary particle]] -- [[Boson]] -- [[Fermion]] |
| 17 | 17 | |
| 18 | | -:[[Symmetry]] -- [[Conservation law]] -- [[Mass]]&nbsp;-- [[Energy]]&nbsp;--[[Momentum]]&nbsp;-- [[Angular momentum]]&nbsp;-- [[Spin (physics)|Spin]] |
| | 18 | +:[[Symmetry]] -- [[Conservation law]] -- [[Mass]] -- [[Energy]] --[[Momentum]] -- [[Angular momentum]] -- [[Spin (physics)|Spin]] |
| 19 | 19 | |
| 20 | | -:[[Time]]&nbsp;-- [[Space]] -- [[Dimension]] -- [[Spacetime]] -- [[Length]]&nbsp;-- [[Velocity]]&nbsp;-- [[Force]]&nbsp;-- [[Torque]] |
| | 20 | +:[[Time]] -- [[Space]] -- [[Dimension]] -- [[Spacetime]] -- [[Length]] -- [[Velocity]] -- [[Force]] -- [[Torque]] |
| 21 | 21 | |
| 22 | | -:[[Wave]]&nbsp;-- [[Wavefunction]] -- [[Quantum entanglement]] -- [[Harmonic oscillator]]&nbsp;-- [[Magnetism]]&nbsp;-- [[Electricity]]&nbsp;-- [[Electromagnetic radiation]]&nbsp;-- [[Temperature]]&nbsp;-- [[Entropy]] -- [[Physical information]] |
| | 22 | +:[[Wave]] -- [[Wavefunction]] -- [[Quantum entanglement]] -- [[Harmonic oscillator]] -- [[Magnetism]] -- [[Electricity]] -- [[Electromagnetic radiation]] -- [[Temperature]] -- [[Entropy]] -- [[Physical information]] |
| 23 | 23 | |
| 24 | 24 | :'''[[fundamental force|Fundamental Forces]]''' |
| 25 | | -:[[Gravity|Gravitational]]&nbsp;-- [[Electromagnetism|Electromagnetic]]&nbsp;-- [[Weak interaction|Weak]]&nbsp;-- [[Strong interaction|Strong]] |
| | 25 | +:[[Gravity|Gravitational]] -- [[Electromagnetism|Electromagnetic]] -- [[Weak interaction|Weak]] -- [[Strong interaction|Strong]] |
| 26 | 26 | |
| 27 | 27 | :'''[[Particle physics|Particles]]''' |
| 28 | | -:[[Atom]]&nbsp;-- [[Proton]]&nbsp;-- [[Neutron]]&nbsp;-- [[Electron]]&nbsp;-- [[Quark]]&nbsp;-- [[Photon]]&nbsp;-- [[Gluon]]&nbsp;-- [[W boson]]&nbsp;-- [[Z boson]]&nbsp;-- [[Graviton]]&nbsp;-- [[Neutrino]]&nbsp;-- [[Particle radiation]] |
| | 28 | +:[[Atom]] -- [[Proton]] -- [[Neutron]] -- [[Electron]] -- [[Quark]] -- [[Photon]] -- [[Gluon]] -- [[W boson]] -- [[Z boson]] -- [[Graviton]] -- [[Neutrino]] -- [[Particle radiation]] |
| 29 | 29 | |
| 30 | 30 | |
| 31 | 31 | :'''Subfields of Physics''' |
| 32 | | -:[[Astrophysics]]&nbsp;-- [[Atomic, Molecular, and Optical physics]]&nbsp;-- [[Computational physics]]&nbsp;-- [[Condensed matter physics]]&nbsp;-- [[Cryogenics]]&nbsp;-- [[Fluid dynamics]]&nbsp;-- [[Polymer physics]]&nbsp;-- [[Optics]]&nbsp;-- [[Materials physics]]&nbsp;-- [[Nuclear physics]]&nbsp;-- [[Plasma physics]]&nbsp;-- [[Particle physics]] (or High Energy Physics) -- [[Solid state physics]] |
| | 32 | +:[[Astrophysics]] -- [[Atomic, Molecular, and Optical physics]] -- [[Computational physics]] -- [[Condensed matter physics]] -- [[Cryogenics]] -- [[Fluid dynamics]] -- [[Polymer physics]] -- [[Optics]] -- [[Materials physics]] -- [[Nuclear physics]] -- [[Plasma physics]] -- [[Particle physics]] (or High Energy Physics) -- [[Solid state physics]] |
| 33 | 33 | |
| 34 | 34 | :'''Methods''' |
| 35 | | -:[[Scientific method]]&nbsp;-- [[Physical quantity]]&nbsp;-- [[Measurement]]&nbsp;-- [[Measuring instruments]]&nbsp;-- [[Dimensional analysis]]&nbsp;-- [[Probability and Statistics]] |
| | 35 | +:[[Scientific method]] -- [[Physical quantity]] -- [[Measurement]] -- [[Measuring instruments]] -- [[Dimensional analysis]] -- [[Probability and Statistics]] |
| 36 | 36 | |
| 37 | 37 | :'''Tables''' |
| 38 | | -:[[Physical constants]]&nbsp;-- [[SI base unit|SI base units]]&nbsp;-- [[SI derived unit|SI derived units]]&nbsp;-- [[SI prefix|SI prefixes]]&nbsp;-- [[Conversion of units|Unit conversions]] |
| | 38 | +:[[Physical constants]] -- [[SI base unit|SI base units]] -- [[SI derived unit|SI derived units]] -- [[SI prefix|SI prefixes]] -- [[Conversion of units|Unit conversions]] |
| 39 | 39 | |
| 40 | 40 | :'''History''' |
| 41 | | -:[[History of Physics]]&nbsp;-- [[Famous Physicists]]&nbsp;-- [[Nobel Prize in physics]] |
| | 41 | +:[[History of Physics]] -- [[Famous Physicists]] -- [[Nobel Prize in physics]] |
| 42 | 42 | |
| 43 | 43 | :'''Related Fields''' |
| 44 | | -:[[Mathematical physics]]&nbsp;-- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]]&nbsp;-- [[Materials science]]&nbsp;-- [[Electronics]]&nbsp;-- [[Engineering]] |
| | 44 | +:[[Mathematical physics]] -- [[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] -- [[Materials science]] -- [[Electronics]] -- [[Engineering]] |
| 45 | 45 | |
| 46 | 46 | |
| 47 | 47 | (''To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Physics, please see [[Physics basic topics]].'') |
| — | — | @@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ |
| 78 | 78 | |
| 79 | 79 | ''A more detailed history of physics article is in development at [[History of Physics]].'' |
| 80 | 80 | |
| 81 | | -<hr> |
| | 81 | +---- |
| 82 | 82 | |
| 83 | 83 | '''Suggested Reading:''' |
| 84 | 84 | * [[Richard Feynman|Feynman]], ''The Character of Physical Law'', MIT Press, 1965 |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Language.txt |
| — | — | @@ -24,8 +24,6 @@ |
| 25 | 25 | |
| 26 | 26 | See also [[Common phrases in different languages]], [[Tongue twister]]. |
| 27 | 27 | |
| 28 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics about language, please see [[Linguistics basic topics]]. |
| 29 | | - |
| 30 | 28 | ---- |
| 31 | 29 | '''External links:''' |
| 32 | 30 | * [http://www.zompist.com/ Mark Rosenfelder's Metaverse] |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Critical_theory.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,12 +1,10 @@ |
| 2 | | -'''Critical theory''' began as a label used by members of the Institute for Social Research of [[Frankfurt University]] to describe their own work. The Institute was founded in [[1923]] by [[Max Horkheimer]] and closed in [[1934]]; many of its members emigrated to New York City and helped found the New School for Social Research there. The original [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]] school re-opened in the [[1950s]] and its chief modern representative is probably [[Jurgen Habermas|J&uuml;rgen Habermas]]. |
| | 2 | +'''Critical theory''' began as a label used by members of the Institute for Social Research of [[Frankfurt University]] to describe their own work. The Institute was founded in [[1923]] by [[Max Horkheimer]] and closed in [[1934]]; many of its members emigrated to New York City and helped found the New School for Social Research there. The original [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]] school re-opened in the [[1950s]] and its chief modern representative is probably [[Jurgen Habermas|Jürgen Habermas]]. |
| 3 | 3 | |
| 4 | 4 | The Frankfurt school were dissident [[Marxism | Marxists]], severe critics of capitalism who believed that a narrow selection of [[Karl Marx | Marx's]] ideas were being parroted by those who claimed to follow his lead, usually in defense of the Communist Party. They took up the task of choosing what parts of Marx's thought might serve to clarify social conditions he had never seen. They drew on other schools of thought to fill in perceived omissions in Marx's. [[Max Weber]] was a principal influence, but [[Herbert Marcuse]], for example, sought to combine the views of [[Karl Marx | Marx]] and [[Freud]]. |
| 5 | 5 | |
| 6 | | -The Frankfurt school was literally a school, a place where individuals taught and learned. There is no one method, ambition, or conclusion shared by all of them. However, there is a broad emphasis on criticizing the <i>culture</i> of capitalism (and orthodox communism). The title of one book, Leo Lowenthal's <i>Literature, Popular Culture, and Society</i>, suggests their interests. In [[Habermas]], the work focuses on the question of what cultural conditions are needed to make good intellectual work possible -- or, more pessimistically, how far economic interests and political dogma can corrupt science and philosophy. |
| | 6 | +The Frankfurt school was literally a school, a place where individuals taught and learned. There is no one method, ambition, or conclusion shared by all of them. However, there is a broad emphasis on criticizing the ''culture'' of capitalism (and orthodox communism). The title of one book, Leo Lowenthal's ''Literature, Popular Culture, and Society'', suggests their interests. In [[Habermas]], the work focuses on the question of what cultural conditions are needed to make good intellectual work possible -- or, more pessimistically, how far economic interests and political dogma can corrupt science and philosophy. |
| 7 | 7 | |
| 8 | | -This general emphasis on culture as a product of economic systems has shaped literary historians, film critics, historians of science, and others. The search for useful ideas from other fields has also been imitated. Therefore, the term "critical theory" now is used loosely to group all sorts of work--[[Structuralism]], the anti-structuralist views known as [[Postmodernism]], and so on. See [[Cultural movement]]. |
| | 8 | +This general emphasis on culture as a product of economic systems has shaped literary historians, film critics, historians of science, and others. The search for useful ideas from other fields has also been imitated. Therefore, the term "critical theory" now is used loosely to group all sorts of work--[[Structuralism]], the anti-structuralist views known as [[Postmodernism]], and so on. See [[Cultural movement]]. |
| 9 | 9 | |
| 10 | 10 | See [[Walter Benjamin]], [[Theodor Adorno]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Max Horkheimer]], [[Jurgen Habermas]], [[Max Weber]]. |
| 11 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Critical Theory, please see [[Critical Theory basic topics]]. |
| 12 | 11 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Library_and_information_science.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,15 +1,14 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[nl:Bibliotheekwezen]] |
| 3 | | -'''Library and information science''' (LIS) (as distinct from [[information theory]]) is the "study of stuff having to do with [[library|libraries]]." Strictly speaking, LIS consists of academic studies (most often surveys) about how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. These studies tend to be specific to certain libraries at certain times. Generally speaking, LIS is about the organization of knowledge for retrieval of relevant information. |
| | 3 | +'''Library and information science''' (LIS) (as distinct from [[information theory]]) is the "study of stuff having to do with [[library|libraries]]". Strictly speaking, LIS consists of academic studies (most often surveys) about how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. These studies tend to be specific to certain libraries at certain times. Generally speaking, LIS is about the organization of knowledge for retrieval of relevant information. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | | -Library Science is distinct from Librarianship, which is the practical <em>services</em> rendered by librarians in their day-to-day attempt to meet the needs of library patrons. Librarianship tends not to generate new knowledge, nor to strive to advance any field or discipline. Librarians only rarely engage in Library Science, and then usually outside their jobs as librarians. But the study of Library Science is part of the requisite training of librarians. "Information" and "documentation" means non-[[book]] stuff that university libraries deal with, such as magazines, scientific journals, technical reports, and access to online databases. |
| | 5 | +Library Science is distinct from Librarianship, which is the practical ''service'' rendered by librarians in their day-to-day attempt to meet the needs of library patrons. Librarianship tends not to generate new knowledge, nor to strive to advance any field or discipline. Librarians only rarely engage in Library Science, and then usually outside their jobs as librarians. But the study of Library Science is part of the requisite training of librarians. "Information" and "documentation" means non-[[book]] stuff that university libraries deal with, such as magazines, scientific journals, technical reports, and access to online databases. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | | -The term "Library and Information Science" should not be broken into these separate pieces. Library and Information Science is a hybrid academic field that grew from library schools' fight for survival in the electronic age. The politics of academia, issues of status and prestige, issues of perceived obsolescence and other forces created these programs. Programs in Library and Information Science are interdisciplinary, overlapping with the fields of systems' analysis, [[computer science]], [[statistics]] and various parts of the [[social sciences]]. |
| | 7 | +The term "Library and Information Science" should not be broken into these separate pieces. Library and Information Science is a hybrid academic field that grew from library schools' fight for survival in the electronic age. The politics of academia, issues of status and prestige, issues of perceived obsolescence and other forces created these programs. Programs in Library and Information Science are interdisciplinary, overlapping with the fields of systems' analysis, [[computer science]], [[statistics]] and various parts of the [[social sciences]]. |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | | -The field of Library and Information Science is not defined by its output of information specialists, but by the "information specialists" who remain in academia teaching and doing research, by its literature, its journals and all the other ways in which an academic discipline is defined, the study of which, by the way, falls within the scope of Library and Information Science! |
| | 9 | +The field of Library and Information Science is not defined by its output of information specialists, but by the "information specialists" who remain in academia teaching and doing research, by its literature, its journals and all the other ways in which an academic discipline is defined, the study of which, by the way, falls within the scope of Library and Information Science! |
| 10 | 10 | |
| 11 | 11 | Basic topics in Library science include the acquisition, [[library classification|classification]] and preservation of Library materials. In a more present-day view, a fervent outgrowth of library science is information architecture. |
| 12 | 12 | |
| 13 | | - |
| 14 | 13 | Important LIS institutions and resources: |
| 15 | 14 | * Indiana University SLIS, http://www.slis.indiana.edu/ |
| 16 | 15 | * Syracuse University School of Information Studies, http://istweb.syr.edu/ |
| — | — | @@ -24,7 +23,6 @@ |
| 25 | 24 | * Australian Library and Information Association, http://www.alia.org.au/ |
| 26 | 25 | * American Society for Information Science and Technology, http://www.asis.org/ |
| 27 | 26 | |
| 28 | | - |
| 29 | 27 | Some current LIS issues: |
| 30 | 28 | * [[information explosion]] |
| 31 | 29 | * [[information retrieval]] |
| — | — | @@ -34,8 +32,7 @@ |
| 35 | 33 | * [[slow fires]] |
| 36 | 34 | * [[mass deacidification]] |
| 37 | 35 | * [[information architecture]] |
| | 36 | + |
| 38 | 37 | See also: |
| 39 | 38 | *[http://www.LISNews.com Library and Information Science News ;-)] http://www.LISNews.com |
| 40 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in LIS, please see [[Library and Information Science basic topics]]. |
| 41 | 39 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Agriculture.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,4 +1,4 @@ |
| 2 | | -'''Agriculture''' is the process of producing [[food]] by cultivation of certain [[plant]]s and the raising of domesticated [[animal]]s. Agriculture is also known as '''farming'''. It includes both subsistence agriculture, which is producing enough food to meet the needs of the [[farmer]] and family, but no more) and also (almost universally in the "developed" nations and increasingly so in other areas) the production of financial income from cultivation of the land or commercial raising of animals ([[animal husbandry]]). Agriculture is the ''practice'' -- the ''study'' of these disciplines is called [[Agricultural Science|agricultural science]]. |
| | 2 | +'''Agriculture''' is the process of producing [[food]] by cultivation of certain [[plant]]s and the raising of domesticated [[animal]]s. Agriculture is also known as '''farming'''. It includes both subsistence agriculture, which is producing enough food to meet the needs of the [[farmer]] and family, but no more) and also (almost universally in the "developed" nations and increasingly so in other areas) the production of financial income from cultivation of the land or commercial raising of animals ([[animal husbandry]]). Agriculture is the ''practice'' -- the ''study'' of these disciplines is called [[Agricultural Science|agricultural science]]. |
| 3 | 3 | |
| 4 | 4 | Increasingly, besides food for humans and animal feeds, agriculture produces goods such as cut flowers, ornamental and nursery plants, [[fertilizer]]s, [[animal hides]], [[leather]], industrial chemicals ([[starch]], [[ethanol]], and [[plastic]]s), [[fiber]]s ([[cotton]], [[wool]], [[cannabis|hemp]], and [[flax]]), and fuels (ethanol, methane). Electricity can be generated from [[methane]] gas of animal waste. |
| 5 | 5 | |
| — | — | @@ -6,10 +6,8 @@ |
| 7 | 7 | |
| 8 | 8 | Animal husbandry means raising animals for [[slaughter]] or to harvest animal products on a continual basis. Common farm animals or animal products include [[cattle]], [[dairy product]]s, [[chicken]], [[egg]]s, [[turkey]]s, [[emu]]s, [[horse]]s, [[rabbit]]s, [[sheep]], [[goat]]s, [[pig]]s, [[honey]], and [[silkworm]]s ([[sericulture]]). Fish, shrimp, and algae can also be farmed ([[aquaculture]]). |
| 9 | 9 | |
| 10 | | - |
| 11 | 10 | In recent years, industrial agriculture has been the subject of increasing discussion. Patenting of seeds, the leaching of [[nitrogen]] and pesticides into the ground water and runoff, pesticide use, soil [[erosion]], habitat destruction, genetic manipulation of crops and animals, and concerns about animal welfare have raised public awareness of alternative farming methods such as [[organic farming]]. |
| 12 | 11 | |
| 13 | | - |
| 14 | 12 | === History === |
| 15 | 13 | Farming is known to have taken place for at least 10,000 years. Its introduction is often used to distinguish the [[neolithic]] period from earlier parts of the [[stone age]]. The first crops that humans domesticated included [[wheat]] and [[barley]]. The history of farming is obscure because it pre-dates writing, but it is clear that farming was invented at least twice, probably more often: once in the [[Fertile Crescent]], once in [[Mesoamerica|Central America]], and probably once in east Asia. Most likely, there was a gradual transition from a hunter-gatherer economy to an agricultural one, via a lengthy period when some crops were deliberately planted, and other foods were gathered from the wild. The reasons for the earliest introduction of farming may have included [[climate]] change. Farming allows a much greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering. |
| 16 | 14 | |
| — | — | @@ -23,18 +21,18 @@ |
| 24 | 22 | ==== [[Fence|Fencing]] |
| 25 | 23 | === Domesticated plants === |
| 26 | 24 | Domestication of plants is made in order to increase yield and improve the taste and nutritional value. In recent times, [[genetic engineering]] has begun to be employed to enhance certain aspects of the natural plants. |
| 27 | | -* <b>[[Wheat]]</b> (aka ''corn''). Has a very long history of domestication, and is thought to be one of the first plants used for farming... |
| 28 | | -* <b>[[Rice]]</b>. The chief crop in eastern [[Asia]], and an important foodstuff around the world. |
| 29 | | -* <b>[[Maize]]</b> (aka ''corn''). Old domesticated plant, found in countless variations throughout the [[Americas]]. |
| 30 | | -* <b>[[Potato]]</b> |
| | 25 | +* <b>[[Wheat]]</b> (aka ''corn''). Has a very long history of domestication, and is thought to be one of the first plants used for farming... |
| | 26 | +* <b>[[Rice]]</b>. The chief crop in eastern [[Asia]], and an important foodstuff around the world. |
| | 27 | +* <b>[[Maize]]</b> (aka ''corn''). Old domesticated plant, found in countless variations throughout the [[Americas]]. |
| | 28 | +* <b>[[Potato]]</b> |
| 31 | 29 | * '''[[Yam]]''' |
| 32 | 30 | * '''[[Barley]]''' |
| 33 | 31 | * '''[[Oats]]''' |
| 34 | | -* <b>[[Soybean]]</b> |
| 35 | | -* <b>[[Lentil]]s</b> |
| 36 | | -* <b>[[Apple]]</b>. |
| | 32 | +* <b>[[Soybean]]</b> |
| | 33 | +* <b>[[Lentil]]s</b> |
| | 34 | +* <b>[[Apple]]</b>. |
| 37 | 35 | |
| 38 | | -<I>Perhaps this section and [[Vegetable farming]] ought to be merged?</i> |
| | 36 | +<I>Perhaps this section and [[Vegetable farming]] ought to be merged?</i> |
| 39 | 37 | |
| 40 | 38 | === Domesticated animals === |
| 41 | 39 | |
| — | — | @@ -47,5 +45,5 @@ |
| 48 | 46 | |
| 49 | 47 | [[Erosion]] |
| 50 | 48 | |
| 51 | | -<b>See also</b> [[agricultural science]], [[Agricultural sciences basic topics]], [[aquaculture]], and [[mariculture]], [[Timeline of agriculture and food technology]]. |
| | 49 | +See also [[agricultural science]], [[Agricultural sciences basic topics]], [[aquaculture]], and [[mariculture]], [[Timeline of agriculture and food technology]]. |
| 52 | 50 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Sculpture.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,8 +1,6 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | '''Sculpture''' is any three-dimensional form created as an artistic expression. |
| 3 | | - |
| 4 | 3 | ''Sculpting'' is the [[art]] of assembling or shaping an object. It may be of any size and of any suitable material. Traditional sculpting materials are: stone (e.g. marble, limestone, granite), clay (e.g. porcelain, terracotta), metal (e.g. bronze, iron, [[aluminum]]), and [[wood,as a medium|wood]]. [[modern art|Modern]] and Contemporary materials include the environment, textiles, [[glass]], [[sand]], water, liquid crystals, many other man-made materials, as well as any found-objects. (In his late writings [[Joan Miro]] even proposed that some day sculptures might be made of gases (see [[gas sculpture]]).) |
| 5 | 4 | |
| 6 | | - |
| 7 | 5 | Some of the forms of sculpture are: |
| 8 | 6 | *[[Relief]] - sculpture still attached to a background, standing out from that ground in "High Relief" or "Low Relief" (bas-relief) |
| 9 | 7 | *Free-standing sculpture |
| — | — | @@ -18,6 +16,3 @@ |
| 19 | 17 | *http://www.sculpture.org |
| 20 | 18 | * Unique mediums: (Sand) http://www.teamsandtastic.com |
| 21 | 19 | * http://www.greenmuseum.org The online museum of environmental art. |
| 22 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics about sculpture, please see [[sculpture basic topics]]. |
| 23 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Computer_Science.txt |
| — | — | @@ -5,14 +5,12 @@ |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | 7 | See [[computer scientist]] for a list of famous computer scientists. |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | | - |
| 10 | 9 | Major subfields include |
| 11 | 10 | |
| 12 | 11 | * Mathematical foundations |
| 13 | 12 | ** [[Discrete mathematics]] |
| 14 | 13 | ** [[Symbolic logic]] |
| 15 | 14 | |
| 16 | | - |
| 17 | 15 | * Theoretical computer science |
| 18 | 16 | ** [[Algorithmic information theory]] |
| 19 | 17 | ** [[computational complexity theory|Complexity theory]] |
| — | — | @@ -21,7 +19,6 @@ |
| 22 | 20 | ** [[Theory of computation]] (or ''theoretical computer science'') |
| 23 | 21 | ** [[Type theory]] |
| 24 | 22 | |
| 25 | | - |
| 26 | 23 | * Algorithms |
| 27 | 24 | ** [[Algorithm|Algorithms]] |
| 28 | 25 | ** [[Compiler|Compilers]] |
| — | — | @@ -29,7 +26,6 @@ |
| 30 | 27 | ** [[microprogram|Microprogramming]] |
| 31 | 28 | ** [[Operating system|Operating systems]] |
| 32 | 29 | |
| 33 | | - |
| 34 | 30 | * Applied computer science |
| 35 | 31 | ** [[Artificial intelligence]] |
| 36 | 32 | ** [[Computer architecture]] |
| — | — | @@ -44,7 +40,6 @@ |
| 45 | 41 | ** [[Program verification]] |
| 46 | 42 | ** [[Software engineering]] |
| 47 | 43 | |
| 48 | | - |
| 49 | 44 | * Specific techniques |
| 50 | 45 | ** [[Benchmark]] |
| 51 | 46 | ** [[Computer vision]] |
| — | — | @@ -66,6 +61,3 @@ |
| 67 | 62 | * [[Computer jargon]] |
| 68 | 63 | * [[jargon file|Computer slang]] |
| 69 | 64 | |
| 70 | | -<b>What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in computer science, please see [[Computer science basic topics]].</b> |
| 71 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Engineering.txt |
| — | — | @@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | 9 | Engineers try to project how an artifact will perform to its specification. They use, among other things: computer simulations, destructive tests and stress tests. Testing ensures the artifact will act as predicted. |
| 10 | 10 | |
| 11 | | -It is a myth that ''engineer'' originated to describe those who built [[engine|engines]]. In fact, the word derives from the Latin, "ingeniosus," the root of the modern English word 'ingenious'. An engineer was thus a clever, practical, problem solver. The term later evolved to include all fields where the skills of application of the [[scientific method]] are used. |
| | 11 | +It is a myth that ''engineer'' originated to describe those who built [[engine|engines]]. In fact, the word derives from the Latin ''ingeniosus'', the root of the modern English word "ingenious". An engineer was thus a clever, practical, problem solver. The term later evolved to include all fields where the skills of application of the [[scientific method]] are used. |
| 12 | 12 | |
| 13 | 13 | The main difference between [[technology]] and [[science]] is that the former is well understood and yields practical results while the latter tries to explain new and unexplained phenomena. Engineers work on technology while scientists work on science. |
| 14 | 14 | |
| — | — | @@ -58,6 +58,3 @@ |
| 59 | 59 | *[[SI unit]] |
| 60 | 60 | *[[Thermodynamics]] |
| 61 | 61 | |
| 62 | | -<b>What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Engineering, please see [[Engineering basic topics]].</b> |
| 63 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Statistics.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,5 +1,5 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[nl:Statistiek]][[pl:Statystyka]] |
| 3 | | -"There are lies, damn lies, and then there are Statistics." - Mark Twain |
| | 3 | +:"There are lies, damn lies, and then there are Statistics." - Mark Twain |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | 5 | '''Statistics''' is the science of |
| 6 | 6 | #[[Planning Research|planning observations]], |
| — | — | @@ -14,6 +14,3 @@ |
| 15 | 15 | |
| 16 | 16 | '''See also:''' |
| 17 | 17 | * [[Extreme value theory]] -- [[Data mining]] |
| 18 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Statistics, please see [[Statistics basic topics]]. |
| 19 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Recreation.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,11 +1,8 @@ |
| 2 | | -<b>Recreation</b> is refreshment of one's body or mind. Recreation is often distinguished from [[leisure]]. Where leisure is, or ought to be, restful, recreation is refreshing and diverting. |
| | 2 | +'''Recreation''' is refreshment of one's body or mind. Recreation is often distinguished from [[leisure]]. Where leisure is, or ought to be, restful, recreation is refreshing and diverting. |
| 3 | 3 | |
| 4 | 4 | [[Music]] and [[dance]] serve as recreation in many cultures, as do [[sports]] and [[hobbies]] and sometimes [[food and drink]]. |
| 5 | 5 | |
| 6 | 6 | We sometimes use drugs as a form of recreation (see [[recreational drug use]])--and, like dancing, [[sex]], [[nudism]], and other forms of recreation which many people treat as illicit. |
| 7 | 7 | |
| 8 | 8 | The [[weekend]] is typically a time for recreation, perhaps (in [[Judeo-Christian_tradition|Judeo-Christian]] and Muslim cultures) because the [[Sabbath]] falls on the weekend and the Sabbath is "the day of rest." [[Holiday]]s are also a common time for recreation. |
| 9 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics about recreation, please see [[recreation basic topics]]. |
| 10 | 9 | |
| 11 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Archaeology.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[de:Arch�ologie]][[fr:Arch�ologie]][[nl:Archeologie]][[pl:Archeologia]] |
| 3 | | -'''Archaeology''' (or <i>Archeology</i>) is the study of human activity, primarily through the study of its material remains. Since most human activity is in the past, and most past human activity occurred before any written record, archaeology is the most important method for the study of human pre-history. Moreover, since the historical (i.e. written) record is incomplete, archaeology provides a vital contribution to the study of human [[history]]. Finally, '''ethnoarcheologists''' contribute to the study of contemporary societies. |
| | 3 | +'''Archaeology''' (or ''Archeology'') is the study of human activity, primarily through the study of its material remains. Since most human activity is in the past, and most past human activity occurred before any written record, archaeology is the most important method for the study of human pre-history. Moreover, since the historical (i.e. written) record is incomplete, archaeology provides a vital contribution to the study of human [[history]]. Finally, '''ethnoarcheologists''' contribute to the study of contemporary societies. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | 5 | The material remains of human activity often have aesthetic, political, and monetary value. Consequently, many people identify archaeology with the collection of political or economic treasures. This is promulgated, for example, in popular movies dealing with the exploits of fictional archaeologists e.g. [[Indiana Jones]] or the archaeologists in the recent film [[The Mummy]]. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | | -Much of the history of archaeology, however, has been motivated by an attempt to distance itself from pseudo-archeologists and dilettantes, and to establish itself as a science. In the United States, archaeology is one of four fields of [[anthropology]], the scientific study of humanity as a whole. A primary goal of these archaeologists is to reconstruct [[culture|cultural]] systems, by studying their material remains in their material context (or "matrix"). Much archaeological theory has been motivated by the attempt to derive models of [[culture | cultural]] systems, processes, and changes based on material remains. Some schools of archaeology (e.g. processualism) tend to describe the underlying systems, trying to find common ground between cultures; other schools (post-processualism) either believe this impossible or fraught with difficulty, and so examine archaeology in a certain cultural context. |
| | 7 | +Much of the history of archaeology, however, has been motivated by an attempt to distance itself from pseudo-archeologists and dilettantes, and to establish itself as a science. In the United States, archaeology is one of four fields of [[anthropology]], the scientific study of humanity as a whole. A primary goal of these archaeologists is to reconstruct [[culture|cultural]] systems, by studying their material remains in their material context (or "matrix"). Much archaeological theory has been motivated by the attempt to derive models of [[culture | cultural]] systems, processes, and changes based on material remains. Some schools of archaeology (e.g. processualism) tend to describe the underlying systems, trying to find common ground between cultures; other schools (post-processualism) either believe this impossible or fraught with difficulty, and so examine archaeology in a certain cultural context. |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | 9 | Archaeology has been and remains a cultural, gender and political battlefield. Many groups have tried to use archaeology to prove some current cultural or political point. [[Marxism|Marxist]] archaeologists in the USSR often tried to prove the truth of [[historical dialecticalism]]. Some cultural groups have tried, with varying degrees of success, to use archaeology to prove their ancient ownership of an area of land. Many schools of archaeology have been patriarchal, assuming that in prehistory men produced most of the food by hunting, and women produced little nutrition by gathering; more recent studies have exposed the inadequacy of many of these theories. Some used The Great Ages theory to argue continuous upwards progress by Western civilization. |
| 10 | 10 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Health_science.txt |
| — | — | @@ -5,5 +5,3 @@ |
| 6 | 6 | See also: |
| 7 | 7 | *[http://www.HavenWorks.com/health Health News and Links:] http://www.HavenWorks.com/health |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Health Sciences, please see [[Health Sciences basic topics]]. |
| 10 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Psychology.txt |
| — | — | @@ -3,7 +3,7 @@ |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | 5 | Psychologists work in co-operation (and sometimes in competition) with psychiatrists (who are medical doctors who specialise in mental health issues), social workers (most of whom are qualified in various forms of psychological intervention), psychiatric nurses and 'lay' counsellors. Services similar to those provided by psychologists are also often provided by traditional healers and religious counsellors. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | | -The root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was sometimes considered a study of the soul (in a religious sense of this term), though its emergence as a medical discipline can be seen in [[Thomas Willis]]'s reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of brain function, as part of his 1672 anatomical treatise "De Anima Brutorum" ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"). |
| | 7 | +The root of the word psychology (psyche) means "soul" in Greek, and psychology was sometimes considered a study of the soul (in a religious sense of this term), though its emergence as a medical discipline can be seen in [[Thomas Willis]]'s reference to psychology (the "Doctrine of the Soul") in terms of brain function, as part of his 1672 anatomical treatise "De Anima Brutorum" ("Two Discourses on the Souls of Brutes"). |
| 8 | 8 | |
| 9 | 9 | [[Experimental psychology]], as introduced by [[Wilhelm Wundt]] in 1879 at Leipzig University in Germany, eliminated religious implications from psychology entirely. Today, experimental psychology focuses on observable behavior and the evidence it gives about mental processes. It therefore has little specific to say about such notions as an immaterial, immortal soul. Modern psychology is often called the scientific study of behavior, though (as in [[cognitive psychology]]) its purported object is often not behavior but various [[mental event]]s. There are also now many psychological approaches that attempt to take spiritual and religious issues seriously. |
| 10 | 10 | |
| — | — | @@ -11,8 +11,6 @@ |
| 12 | 12 | |
| 13 | 13 | Both psychology and its sister [[psychiatry]] (whose practitioners are medical doctors with a specialty in psychiatry) are criticized by a vocal and well-credentialed (if small) minority in medical and academic circles. These critics call them [[pseudo-science]]s, arguing that their theories, diagnoses and treatments don't hold up under the rigor of the scientific method and that they are not reproducable; others question the appropriateness of applying the scientific method to the study of the human mind and human behavior. A related view is promulgated by some philosophers under the label [[eliminative materialism]]. These challenges to the discipline are, in large part, legitimate and needed, especially when one considers the discipline's growing influence in Western culture and how easy it can be to construct psychological models that are entirely untestable (e.g., Freud's model of the psyche). These concerns seek not to subvert psychology but to strengthen it by the same rigorous inquiry present in other sciences. |
| 14 | 14 | |
| 15 | | - |
| 16 | | - |
| 17 | 15 | Topics in Psychology |
| 18 | 16 | * [[research methods]] |
| 19 | 17 | * the [[brain]] and [[nervous system]] |
| — | — | @@ -143,6 +141,3 @@ |
| 144 | 142 | * [http://www.apa.org/monitor/dec99/toc.html A Century of Psychology (APA)] |
| 145 | 143 | * [http://www.psipesquisa.com.br PsiPesquisa Search Engime in Portuguese] |
| 146 | 144 | |
| 147 | | - |
| 148 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Psychology, please see [[Psychology basic topics]]. |
| 149 | | - |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Tourism.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,7 +1,7 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[eo:Turismo]][[fr:Tourisme]][[nl:Toerisme]] |
| 3 | 3 | '''Tourism''' is an industry that came about when large numbers of middle-class people began to travel as well. As societies became wealthier, and people longer-lived, it became not only possible but probable that lower-middle and middle-class people steadily employed would retire in good health and with some significant savings. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | | -To be a '''tourist''' is to travel and stay in places apart from your usual place of residence, as an end in itself. A tourist can usually be seen as clearly "out of place" with his current surroundings, therefore not to be confused with a traveller. The term tourist is tied to the activity of taking a [[tour]] or [[sightseeing]]. It is not limited to travelling, but used as a description of a person who enters a situation or culture, for a brief time, requiring knowledge that he does not have. |
| | 5 | +To be a '''tourist''' is to travel and stay in places apart from your usual place of residence, as an end in itself. A tourist can usually be seen as clearly "out of place" with his current surroundings, therefore not to be confused with a traveller. The term tourist is tied to the activity of taking a [[tour]] or [[sightseeing]]. It is not limited to travelling, but used as a description of a person who enters a situation or culture, for a brief time, requiring knowledge that he does not have. |
| 6 | 6 | |
| 7 | 7 | The tourist can be interested (among other things) in the new place's [[culture]] or its [[nature]]. Wealthy people have always traveled to distant parts of the world, not incidentally to some other purpose, but as an end in itself: to see great buildings or other works of art; to learn new languages; or to taste new cuisines. |
| 8 | 8 | |
| — | — | @@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ |
| 11 | 11 | == History == |
| 12 | 12 | The words ''tourist'' and ''tourism'' were first used as official terms in 1937 by the [[League of Nations]] to, define people travelling abroad for periods of over 24 hrs. But the tourism industry is much older than that. |
| 13 | 13 | |
| 14 | | -Basically, "tourism", like any other form of economic activity, occurs when the essential parameters come together to make it happen. In this case there are three essential parameters: |
| | 14 | +Basically, "tourism", like any other form of economic activity, occurs when the essential parameters come together to make it happen. In this case there are three essential parameters: |
| 15 | 15 | |
| 16 | 16 | # [[Disposable income]], i.e. money, to spend on non-essentials |
| 17 | 17 | # [[Time]] in which to do so. |
| — | — | @@ -24,7 +24,7 @@ |
| 25 | 25 | |
| 26 | 26 | Again the leisure industry was a British invention, for sociological reasons. Britain was the first European country to industrialize, and the industrial society was the first society to offer time for leisure to a growing number of people. Not the working masses in the first place, but the owners of the machinery of production, the economic oligarchy, the factory owners, the traders, the new middle class. |
| 27 | 27 | |
| 28 | | -Leisure travel had of course developed as an offshoot of [[cultural tourism]], partly as [[health tourism]]. Some English travellers, after visiting the warm lands of the South of Europe, decided to stay there either for the cold season or for the rest of their lives, but this was a very minor development. It was not until the nineteenth century that leisure tourism really began to develop, as people began to "winter" in warmer climates, or to visit places with health-giving mineral waters, in order to cure a whole variety of diseases from gout to liver disorders and bronchitis. |
| | 28 | +Leisure travel had of course developed as an offshoot of [[cultural tourism]], partly as [[health tourism]]. Some English travellers, after visiting the warm lands of the South of Europe, decided to stay there either for the cold season or for the rest of their lives, but this was a very minor development. It was not until the nineteenth century that leisure tourism really began to develop, as people began to "winter" in warmer climates, or to visit places with health-giving mineral waters, in order to cure a whole variety of diseases from gout to liver disorders and bronchitis. |
| 29 | 29 | |
| 30 | 30 | The British origin of this new industry can be recognized in the many names: At Nice, one of the first and most well established holiday resorts on the French [[Riviera]], the long esplanade along the sea front is known to this day as the ''Promenade des Anglais''; and in many other historic resorts in continental Europe, old well established palace hotels have names like the ''Hotel Bristol'', ''Hotel Carlton'' or ''Hotel Majestic'' - reflecting the largely English customers for whom these resorts catered in the early years. |
| 31 | 31 | |
| Index: trunk/phpwiki/testsuite/texts/Classics.txt |
| — | — | @@ -1,10 +1,6 @@ |
| 2 | 2 | [[nl:De klassieken]] |
| 3 | | -In its classic sense, ''cl&auml;ssics'' means the study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of ancient Greece and Rome. |
| | 3 | +In its classic sense, ''classics'' means the study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of ancient Greece and Rome. |
| 4 | 4 | |
| 5 | | -ab&auml;edf |
| 6 | | - |
| 7 | | -ab <bold>uu</bold> gh |
| 8 | | - |
| 9 | 5 | *Ancient Greece |
| 10 | 6 | ::[[Greek language]] |
| 11 | 7 | ::[[Greek mythology]] |
| — | — | @@ -21,7 +17,4 @@ |
| 22 | 18 | ::[[Humanism]] |
| 23 | 19 | ::[[Philology]] |
| 24 | 20 | |
| 25 | | -''Classics'' can also mean (typically in non-academic contexts) [[classic book]]. |
| 26 | | -What are our priorities for writing in this area? To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Classics, please see [[Classics basic topics]]. |
| 27 | | - |
| | 21 | +Classics can also mean (typically in non-academic contexts) [[classic book]]s. |